Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors

Table of Contents Introduction Types of Environmental Forces Resources Disasters or calamities Climatic Changes Degradation of environment References Introduction Environmental forces are factors that affect the growth, operations and survival of a society within a given context. They include the political environment in a society, its cultural beliefs, government regulations, changes in technology, natural disasters and demography factors among others (Charles and Steg, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The purpose of this paper is to discuss the five major environmental factors that impact on social changes within a society. In order to understand how environmental factors influence the society it is necessary that we understand what the concept of social change entails. Social change refers to the alteration or change in the social order of a given society or group of people especially with regard to nature, relationships, behavioral patterns in the society and the social institutions that define them. Social change is also used to refer to progress achieved by the society through evolution and revolution that may have been undertaken by members of that society. Types of Environmental Forces From time to time, any society will always experience some changes that will bring about alterations of the community settings that influence the activities that the society is engaged and its performance in general. The following are environmental factors that bring about social change in a society or group of people. Resources The amount and type of resources available to a given society will play a significant role in promoting social change (Crompton Kasser, 2010). Examples of vital resources include water, land and minerals among others which are used in the production of goods and services. The availa bility of such resources will determine to a great extent the level of production and output the society has. If factors of production such as land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are readily available, the production capacity of a society will definitely be high which implies potential for a stable economy. In this regard, goods and services will be readily available for sale in the market and employment opportunities will be created where people have constant source of income which will improve the overall living standards of the people. This will therefore lead to a social change that is positive as the lifestyle of people in the society will improve. On the other hand, if there are limited resources in a society, there will be stiff competition for them as everyone will be competing for these limited resources thereby leading to potential outbreaks of conflicts among members of the society. This will possibly lead to depletion of the resources which could bring about more conflicts in the society. Therefore, as we have seen availability of resources in a community plays a significant role in determining whether the social change that takes place is positive or negative.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Disasters or calamities Natural calamities and disasters will influence to a great extent the nature of social change that occurs in a society. Hunger, earthquakes and civil war usually adversely affect a society in that it leads to displacements, migrations, change in lifestyle of the people and even loss life. During such cases, people are forced to adapt to new ways of life like constructing new homes, relocating to other places and coming up with new methods of sustenance in order to revert to the original way of life. In most cases, natural calamities usually bring about negative impacts and change in the society while in other cases, people ge t to reorganize themselves on a more solid foundation while they draw lessons from the calamity to better prepare for the future. In such a situation, the natural disasters will have promoted social change. A good example is seen when flooding takes place, in such cases some people have their homes swept away and as a result new and better homes are built elsewhere where flooding is unlikely to occur. In that case environmental forces have social change for the better. Climatic Changes In recent times, the climatic conditions have become quite unpredictable which has adversely affected farming activities globally. This is a serious concern given that farming as an economic activity especially in the developing countries forms the back-bone of the economy. Most often, such countries rely on agricultural exports as their source of income and therefore large proportion of citizens in such countries practice farming both on small scale and large scale. This implies that much of their in vestment centers on farming and in the event of unexpected weather patterns like short or excessive rains the entire produce might eventually fail. On the other hand, if the climatic patterns become predictable farmers will be able to invest more into farming without fear as they know that they will reap much. Some of the produce can then be used for domestic consumption while the surplus can be sold to generate income hence improving the living standards of the society. Degradation of environment Severe environmental degradation will lead to change in the lifestyle of people around it as it affects them negatively. Incidences of air pollution, land pollution and water pollution are most often seen to directly affect the health of the people leading to such diseases like breathing complications and water related diseases (Massicotte, 2009). This can at times trigger mass protests of the community members who might decide to demonstrate against such cases of environmental pollution. In conclusion therefore social change is seen to be caused by all of the above listed factors as well as others not discussed in this paper.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Charles, V Steg, L. (2007) Environmental Psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 63Â  (1): 1-19. Crompton, T Kasser, T. (2010). Social Aspects. Journal of Environment, 52 (4): 23- 33. Massicotte, M. (2009). Activism. Globalizations, 6 (4): 411-431. Reuveny, R. (2009). Environmental Degradation. Social Science Quarterly, 90 (3): 461-479. This essay on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors was written and submitted by user Analia Benton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Healthcare Law and Information Technology Essay Example

Healthcare Law and Information Technology Essay Example Healthcare Law and Information Technology Paper Healthcare Law and Information Technology Paper Tom Keefe, senior director of state government relations for the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society said that legislation in Massachusetts â€Å"will have a direct effect on mandating nationwide use of EHRs healthcare today is an industry characterized by revolutionary technological advances† (Rhea, S. 2008). Technological advances have been utilized by the healthcare industry for years in one way or another. One of the most widely recognized technological advancement in healthcare is the Electronic Health Record (EHR). Simply put, HER’s are â€Å"digital versions of patients’ paper charts† (â€Å"Learn EHR Basics,† n. d. ). Some of the information that can be contained in an EHR can include a patient’s medical history (including diagnoses, any test results, and medications), information from health clinics, pharmacies, emergency facilities and laboratories. The benefits of EHRs are to â€Å"Improve quality and convenience of patient care, increase patient participation in their care, improve accuracy of diagnoses and health outcomes, improve care coordination, and increase practice efficiencies and cost savings† (â€Å"Benefits of Electronic Health Records [EHRs],† n. d. ). Healthcare professionals and hospitals who utilize EHRs, whether that is through implementation or upgrades, are eligible to receive incentives from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n. d. ). This incentive is possible due to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. In order to be eligible for any incentives, healthcare professionals and hospitals must meet the definition of meaningful use. Meaningful use is defined as â€Å"using certified electronic health record (EHR) technology† (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n. d. ) in order to â€Å"improve quality, safety, efficiency, and reduce health disparities, engage patients and family, improve care coordination and population and public health, and maintain privacy and security of patient health information† (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n.  d. ). In other words, utilizing meaningful use would hopefully result in improved medical outcomes as a result of patients being more involved in their care and course of treatment and information being available to healthcare professionals where and when it is necessary. Healthcare professionals and healthcare organizations must also meet the National Patient Safety Goals (NPSG). In 2003 the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) developed six NPSGs with a seventh added in 2004. NPSGs were created with the hopes of delivering safe patient care (Harris Schmitt, 2004, pp.88). The seven NPSGs are â€Å"improve the accuracy of patient identification, improve the effectiveness of communication among caregivers, improve the safety of using high-alert medications, eliminate wrong-site, wrong-patient, wrong-procedure surgery, improve the safety of infusion pumps, improve the effectiveness of clinical alarm systems, and reduce the risk of healthcare-acquired infections† (Harris Schmitt, 2004, pp. 89). Ultimately, the seven NPSG’s, if implemented and followed, would result in safe, consistent patient care. In order to make sure that the NPSGs are followed correctly, they should become a part of initial training upon employment in the healthcare industry. Also, there should be a refresher training each year where healthcare professionals get together and review the NPSGs as well as try to find new ways to track the data and achieve each of the goals. In order to ensure a healthcare organization is meeting the requirements of both meaningful use and NPSGs, the organization needs to collect patient data and analyze the collected data in order to break negative patterns. One process that can be utilized to collect patient data is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR). One of the biggest benefits an EMR provides to healthcare professionals is the ability to track, identify, monitor and improve a specific practice or healthcare organization (â€Å"What is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR),† n. d. ). An EMR could track patient data over time, identify when a patient needs a screening or preventative visit, monitor where patients stand in regards to vaccines, and to ultimately improve the quality of care in a given practice (â€Å"What is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR),† n.d. ). Implementing the use of EMRs into a healthcare practice would get the ball rolling where technology in the healthcare field is concerned. Starting off small is a good way to allow the healthcare professionals, as well as the patients, to form the necessary trust in further technological advancements. If an EMR is already in place in a medical practice, mobile healthcare is another process that healthcare professionals can use to collect and analyze data. Mobile healthcare is also a great tool for healthcare professionals who have a variety of patients over a large geographical area or who are always on the move between their practice and hospitals. Also known as m-health, mobile healthcare is the application of mobile information technologies in the field of healthcare (Siau Shen, 2006, pp. 90). Siau and Shen state that â€Å"mobile technologies can be applied to healthcare in various ways such as voice communication, messaging, notification, asset tracking, and remote access† (Siau Shen, 2006, pp.90). Mobile technologies can reduce administrative costs, improve the response of healthcare professionals, as well as motivate healthcare consumers to become more involved in their treatment course (Siau Shen, 2006, pp. 90). Current technologies in existence make m-health possible. Three examples of these current technologies are Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), Global Positioning System (GPS), and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). Mobile technologies allow flexibility between healthcare providers and healthcare consumers. Patients and doctors, as well as administration professionals, benefit from mobile technologies. In the future, mobile technologies in healthcare organizations could save lives. Mobile technologies, including EMRs and EHRs, allow providers to collect patient data (including past patient history, demographic information, family history, allergies, test results, and lab results for example), track inventory, exchange data and communicate. Healthcare professionals can access a patient’s data and communicate with other healthcare organizations, pharmacies, healthcare professionals, and even the patient themselves. With the advancement of this technology, patient centered healthcare takes on a whole new meaning. The patients can have access to their files, be able to communicate with their healthcare professionals directly, and have access to online information about their diagnoses, medications, and course of treatment. As is always the case, the privacy and security of confidential information are a major concern and that concern heightens when thinking of mobile technologies. Without privacy and security, users of m-health would not be able to form the trust that is necessary when using mobile technologies. HIPPA Privacy and Security Rules â€Å"have detailed requirements regarding both privacy and security†¦the HIPPA Privacy Rules covers protected health information in any medium†¦the HIPPA Security Rules covers electronic protected health information† (â€Å"Privacy and Security,† n. d. ). Studies regarding privacy and security have been, and will continue to be, conducted. Plans regarding privacy and security have been created and implemented in order to help ensure the privacy and security of confidential information. With the topic of privacy and security met, we can now return to the National Patient Safety Goals and how they should be implemented, applied to the practice of healthcare, and tracked by healthcare professionals. National Patient Safety Goals should be utilized and met in every type of healthcare organization setting. Some examples of such a setting are hospitals, clinics, schools and universities, nursing homes, and mental health facilities. Every healthcare consumer deserves the very best care possible. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations recognized that, and as mentioned earlier, created the seven National Patient Safety Goals. Take the mental health facility in the form of a group home for example. Many of the consumers’ needs are met daily by direct care professionals. There is an in-house nursing department that takes care of medical needs that arise during the course of the day. The nursing department also handles scheduling many doctors’ appointments for the consumers’, helping to ensure their health. Aforementioned, there are seven National Patient Safety Goals, however, only a few will be focused on for the sake of tracking and analyzing data in certain types of care that would benefit a consumer in a group home setting. In terms of long term care, the National Patient Safety Goals that are focused on are making sure residents are correctly identified, make sure medications are used safely, preventing infection, preventing residents from falls, and preventing bed sores (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). In order to ensure that medications are safely used, a group home could put together a medical administration record (MAR) in which each resident residing in the group home would have their own sheets with each medication they take listed. On these sheets, staff is responsible for initialing each medication they provide to a resident. In order to meet state requirements, the staff also initial and sign the back of the medication sheets and at the end of each month, the MAR is sent to the nursing department to be reviewed before being returned to the group home to be filed. In addition to the MARs, another way to track when medications are not used safely is through incident reports, which are entered into a system that is run by the state. Both of these methods are great ways to make sure each resident is getting the correct medication at the right time on the right date and by the correct route. In a home care setting, the National Patient Safety Goals that are strived to be met are identifying patients correctly, safely using medicines, preventing infections, preventing falls, and identifying patient safety risks (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). In order to help protect residents from falls, it is important to know each resident and what they are capable of, especially when it comes to ambulating. For example, if a resident who lives in a group home has an unsteady gait, they should be monitored when on or around stairs. They should also not be left alone for too long. Ways to track this are by creating and implementing behavior plans as well as social and environmental plans. Their behavior throughout the day should be watched and documented. Any incidents of falls or injuries should be written on an incident report and reported to the proper people/organizations, given the category of the incident. In a behavioral health care setting, the National Patient Safety Goals that are focused on are correctly identifying residents, safely using medications, preventing infection, and identifying client safety risks (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). Identifying clients correctly is one of the most important and widely used National Patient Safety Goal. It is something that you see happening in every healthcare organization that directly deals with patients. Normally, healthcare providers use two different forms of information to make sure they are working with the right consumer. Some examples of ways consumers can be identified are by name, birth date, patient number, primary care doctor, etc. As a healthcare professional, it is important that they make sure they are working with the right patients, so that there are no mistakes during the course of treatment. While this is not the easiest data to analyze or track, there are a few different ways it can be done. For example, if a resident goes to see their primary care physician, their picture could be taken at the office as a way of identifying the right resident. Facilities could also create and utilize a cover sheet with all the residents pertinent information including, but not limited to, their name, address, social security number, health insurance information, emergency contact, and diagnoses. It is imperative that as much data as possible be tracked. The more data that is collected and tracked, the better the analysis will be. When working with residents in the mental health field, many families are not involved and it is the job of the direct care professionals to advocate for the health and well-being of the residents they work with. Tracking this data can be done in the forms of behavior plans, behavior logs, social and environmental plans, incident reports, family history as well as past medical history and medications, both past and current, just to name a few. In order to ensure that all data is tracked properly, it is important to have a common template that is used agency wide. This will cut down on confusion. In the future, it is my hope that group homes will incorporate some sort of technology in order to better track and analyzing data on residents. If there was a common technology used agency wide, it would cut down on how much paper is used as well as constantly repeating information on many different forms. Also, it would be a great way for anyone involved with the care of a resident to quickly have access to the information they need. If this technology was linked up with the primary care physicians that serve this population, there would not be a need to carry around big files for each resident and there would be better communication between residents, staff and physicians, which would make for a more productive and higher quality visit and course of treatment.

American firm opening branch in Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

American firm opening branch in Japan - Essay Example During the Nara and Heian periods (710-1185) the emperors began to practice Buddhism, believing its teachings would protect the state. The Muromachi era (1333 to 1568) brought disintegration of the central government, firearms were introduced by the shipwrecked Portuguese soldiers, and Christianity was introduced by Francis Xavier. (Background, 2005, p. 3). Finally in the Edo period (1600-1868) Japan enters into an age of â€Å"peace and national isolation.† (Background, 2005, p.4). The United States wants to use the Japanese ports as supply bases for its commercial fleet, and, in a surprise move, Japan accepts the US demands and opens its doors for the first time in two centuries. In the Meiji period (1868-1912), the emperor was restored, and Japan made its transition to nation-state. The Showa period (1926-1989) brought many more changes for Japan, including World War II and its aftermath, including the necessary economic recovery. In 1941 Pearl Harbor brought the US into war in the Pacific and in August of 1945 â€Å"the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the second on Nagasaki; the emperor airs by radio a statement of unconditional surrender.† (Background, 2005, p. 5). The years of 1945-1952 brought allied occupation of Japan, with women gaining legal equality as well as the right to vote. Japan’s poli tical life was changed to a parliamentary state, and with the peace treaty signed in 1951, Japan regained independence. The â€Å"High Growth Age† in Japan occurred from the late 1950’s to the early 1970’s and Japan was rewarded with a booming economy. (Background, 2005, p. 5). Japan is made up of five islands; however there are some thirty-six hundred islands in the entire group, and dozens that are actually inhabited. Japan has twenty-nine thousand kilometers of coastline, and the total land area is 142,000 square miles which makes Japan one-twenty-fifth the size of the United States, or roughly the size of

To what extent was the CIA and the US Government involved in the 1973 Research Paper

To what extent was the CIA and the US Government involved in the 1973 Coup with Chile. Need sources from the American perspectiv - Research Paper Example A strategy was taken after the 4th September 1970 elections to prevent Allende from taking over office. The strategy involved the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) influencing a congressional run off vote as a constitutional requirement since Allende’s victory was not on absolute majority. According to Mirza (270), the intention of the operation was to make the Chileans aware of dangers of the Marxist regime which was to come with Allende’s reign. Allende was a member of the Socialist Party of Chile and he was the Popular Unity between the coalition of communists, socialists, radicals and the Christian democrats. A Marxist, Allende’s program was to nationalize most of the banks and private industries. He also programmed massive land expropriation as well as collectivization. His opposers included Radomiro Tomic of the Christian Democratic Party and Jorge Alessandri. Allende received 36% of the vote winning over Alessadri (34%) and Tomic (27%). Allende won the maj ority but had votes that were less than the popular vote which did not meet the requirements set out in the constitution. The controversy behind Allende’s victory was that he was against the United States’ national interest over Chile. In spite of pressure from the United States, supporters of Allende together with Christian democrats voted for Allende. ... The CIA took various actions, for instance, it made overtures to foreign governments against Salvador’s presidency. According to Hastedt (80), the CIA also circulated propaganda for local media placement which aimed at mobilizing support to raise public opposition against Allende. The CIA contacted a lay man who had connections with church leaders to influence them against Allende. Chilean military officers improved their connections with station officers. Eduardo Frei of the Christian Democratic Party was encouraged to use his influence and encourage officers to form a new government before Allende was elected by the congress as the president. Frei was reluctant to take this action. Between 5th and 20th October, 1970, the station mobilized more contacts with the key Chilean military officers convincing them to engage in a coup .An attachee of the US embassy’s army was put under CIA station as the operational controller. He also relayed vital information to the military . Four of the CIA officers in non-official cover were instructed to meet with the Chilean officers who participated in plotting the coup. This was the track 11 plan which involved a military coup although it failed. The truck one plan involved political action which was aimed at discouraging the congress from electing Allende as the president. Track two failed as a result of the assassination of the army commander, Schneider. He was a strong supporter of the constitution of Chile and a defender of a military coup against Allende. As noted by Schmitz (101), the CIA and the United States government had agreed that absence of Schneider would prove a better position to plan the coup. One of the coup plotters, Robert Viaux, who was a retired

Smoking in ads Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Smoking in ads - Essay Example THESIS STATEMENT The thesis intends to argue on the fact that most advertising is made towards raising the usage of various products and on the same time, warning the viewers regarding the destructive behavior of smoking that can have unfavorable impacts upon the societal well-being at large. DISADVANTAGES OF SMOKING One of the common themes that many anti-smoking advertisements are based on intends to showcase the disadvantages of smoking on the health of the consumer. As depicted in these advertisements, the possibility of the smokers to suffer from several diseases, which can even cause significant threat to their lives. It is quite obvious that smoking affects both the physical along with the mental state of the regular consumers causing threat to various diseases. Theoretically, smoking is regarded as the habit or the action of inhaling the smoke of a tobacco or a particular drug. It is worth mentioning that smoking affects the physical state of an individual through the formati on of numerous diseases like emphysema, lung cancer and respiratory or heart diseases. At certain times, most of these diseases result in causing death of the individuals due to excessive smoking. Based on the above discussion, it can be affirmed from a broader understanding that negative consequences are observed from excessive smoking. Apart from affecting the physical state of an individual, smoking also affects the mental state of the regular abusers as well. This can be justified with reference to the fact that the biological factors engaged in smoking eventually affect an individual’s mental state by a considerable extent. It can be affirmed in this regard that the regular doses of a substance i.e. nicotine present in cigarettes eventually leads toward extensive changes in the individual’ brain, resulting in affecting their mental state at large (Mental Health Foundation, â€Å"Smoking and Mental Health†). Thus, showcasing these disadvantages of smoking, a ffecting the physical along with the mental state of regular abusers, anti-smoking advertisements tend to generate significant impacts on societal awareness against such destructive behaviors. SECOND HAND SMOKERS Another theme addressed in anti-smoking advertisements emphasizes the negative consequences faced by second hand smokers. In general, it can be affirmed that unavoidable smoking effects pertain not only on the abusers but also upon the second hand smokers breathing in the same air and therefore, reside within the periphery to be directing affected by the tobacco smoke. With this similar concern, secondhand smoking affects the lives of the individuals in the form of deteriorating their mental along with physical health. Conceptually, the notion of secondhand smoke is typically observed as the mixture of smoke that results from the burning end of a particular cigarette and also the smoke, which is exhaled by the smokers. It is quite evident that secondhand smoking distresses the people around the abusers in the form of causing several health related problems, even lung cancer. These problems may be related to respiratory along with ear infections, severe attacks of asthma and lung cancer among others. It can be apparently observed in this similar concern that the inhalation of secondhand

Analysis of China as a Superpower

Analysis of China as a Superpower The Dragon Awakes – Will China be the next superpower? China is a sleeping dragon. When it awakes, the world will shake†. (Eccleston H, 2004, p290). Napoleon Bonaparte made this prophetic comment regarding China in 1808 and it would seem that today China has indeed awoken. (Optimize, 2004p. 1). China has had unprecedented economic growth at around 9.5% perineum, a statistic even more impressive amazing bearing in mind that only in 1978 China was poorer than Korea and Taiwan were in the 1960s. (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). China also shows signs of extending its economic reach and is expanding its ventures into developed states. Only recently the Chinese firm Nanjing bought the British ailing car firm MG rover for  £50 million. (BBC News 2006 p. 1). Also in 2005 the Chinese Lenovo Group acquired IBM’s PC business making Lenovo the third largest PC Company in the world. (Economic Times, 2005 p. 1) There is also a huge inflow of FDI (foreign direct investment) into China. China has established 22,245 new firms attracting $59.2 billion in FDI making a total of $33.4 billion in 2003. This makes China the top destination for FDI and a country that firms want to do business with. (People’s Daily, 2003). It is thought by some observers that China’s economy at its present rate could eventually overtake that of the US(United States). (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). If this is so, could China surpass the US in other areas and displace the US as the world superpower. There will be huge implication for international relations if this is to be the case. The writer’s hypothesis is that China’s rise to superpower status will mean a shift of economic, military and cultural power from the west tithe east. Drawing on the work of John Mearsheimer that states are power maximizes, China will continue to pursue power in a bid to become the most powerful state in the international system, a position currently occupied by the US. (Mearsheimer 2001 p. 21). Even those who advocate that the spread of liberalism will lessen the need for the pursuit of power have not been able to ignore this development. Fukuyama in his book â€Å"America at the Crossroads† says that social engineering like that seen in Iraq leads to unexpected consequences and undermines its own ends. Therefore actions which are put forward as promoting peace and democracy turn into something they were not intended to be, the promotion of the national interest of the US. (New York Times, 2006 p. 2). Therefore a state whose power is so big it is unchecked is unable to police itself and act benevolently in the anarchic system. Its main concern is the accumulation of power and it will not be satisfied as purported by Waltz’ defensive realist view, by only seeking to acquire as much power so as to feel secure. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 169-170). A world dominated by China A world dominated by China may be very different than the present world that has for the last two centuries been dominated by a western power. As already mentioned China’s rise will not result in it being status quo power and therefore it will not be happy to work within system determined by western values. (Guardian 2005 p. 2). China has different values to that of the west and its rise will lead to the promotion of those values through its economic, military and institutional power. Therefore as Huntingdon notes, the new fault-lines will not be between ideologies like the two World Wars and the Cold War but between civilizations. This is due to the different views that cultures have in regard to relationships such as the citizen and the state, husband and wife, liberty and equality. (Huntingdon 1993 p.25). The west has promoted its values of liberalism as being the universal values of the world community. But due to the anarchic structure of the system these values have been used to promote its national interest. China will appeal to those states who have different view of the world that the one being put forward by the US and other western states. These states will have similar cultural values to China which stress the subordination of individual rights and elevate consensus differ from the western beliefs of liberty, equality and individualism. (Huntingdon 1993 p. 29). Indeed China is forging links with states that the US deems as rogue states such as Iran with its recent gas deal worth $100 billion. The US has imposed economic sanctions on Iran and this gas deal is a clear sign that China does not intend to work within a system determined by the US. Further, Iran is looking to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which could act as a counterweight to US institutional power. (Asia Times 2004 p.1-2). The writer will look at China’s potential superpower status using the neo-realist theory and its conceptual and methodological framework. This will entail the use of secondary research methods by exploring the concepts of neo-realism through the scholars in this field. This theory rose to prominence during the late 1970s due to the writings of Kenneth Waltz. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 49). It rests on the earlier realist perspective of writers such as E H Carr and Hans Morgenthau, which was dominant in international relations in the post-World War II era. Realism also rose due to the inability of the liberal perspective and its principles to maintain peace in Europe. (Bur chill, 2001 p. 71). It was concerned with the causes of war and ways in which it can be prevented. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 48). EH Carr’s â€Å"The Twenty Years Crisis† was a critique of the liberal view that co-operation, under institutions such as the League of Nations, would render war obsolete. Carr’s theory was proven when World War I broke out the day after his book was published. (Bur chill 2001 p.71). Morgenthau’s work, Politics Amongst Nations (1948) sought to apply positivist methodology used in the natural sciences to international relations. Thus we can draw objective knowledge and laws from the social world in the same way that we can from the natural world. (Bur chill 2001 p. 77). He maintains that politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature and that human nature is reflected in the way states behave. The outcomes of the interaction of states are due to the behaviour of statesmen and thus human nature. (Bur chill 2001 p. 83). Morgenthau and Carr draw on a long philosophical heritage going back to the writings of Thucydides 460BCto 406BC and Niccole Machiavelli 1469 to 1527. The neo-realist perspective came about in response to the rise of liberal internationalism and their interdependency theory in the1970s. Neo-realism engages with this approach that deems the state tube less significant in an interdependent world due to the rise of institutions, regimes and transnational corporations. (Bailys Smith 2005 171). Realism recognised that it had to develop new tools to analyse these new developments. Thus realism reinvented itself sane-realism, acknowledging that such non-governmental actors exist, but they have to work within an anarchical international system where there is no overall authority above that of the sovereign state. This means states can never fully co-operate within these institutions due to the possibility that one state may gain more out of this co-operation. The anarchic structure of the system is where neo-realism departs from the earlier realist theory that human nature determines how states behave. Waltz’ systemic approach Waltz’ systemic approach is that it is the structure of the international system that determines the way states behave and not human nature. Despite this departure it can be said that there are core theoretical elements that underpin the earlier classical realism, modern realism of Carr and Morgenthau and Waltz’s structural realism. This is known as the realist triangle of state, survival and self-help. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The primary actor in the international system is the state. This can be traced back to Thucydides’ time when the unit of analysis waste city-state or polis. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). That said, Carr and Morgenthau were less state-centric in that they did not envisage the state as the final form of political community. (Burchill2001 p. 76). The state is the only legitimate representative of the people and it uses this legitimacy to wield its authority within and outside the state. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The second core element is that of survival. The priority of the state is to ensure its own survival in the anarchic structure of the international system. This concept is present in Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince† which details what leaders must do to keep hold of their power. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 174). The third concept is that of self-help that Waltz deems necessary to gain security in an anarchic structure. Hedley Bull’s â€Å"The Anarchical Society†(1977) concurs with Waltz that all states exist in an anarchical society where there is no higher authority than the sovereign state. Therefore national interest is the state’s first duty that ensures the right for citizens to feel secure within state borders. Self-help is necessary as this cannot been trusted to anyone else and this is achieved through the accumulation of power to reduce vulnerability in the anarchic system of states. The state’s first â€Å"law of motion† is to preserve the state and in order to do this it must pursue power. (Bailys Smith p. 162-3, 169). The writer has also been inspired by the academic Paul Kennedy (1989)in his book: â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. The writer will use this thesis to assess whether China is rising at the expense of the decline of the US. According to Kennedy’s thesis the rise and fall of power is cyclical thus once a great power has arisen it must inevitably fall. A state that has achieved economic strength will protect that strength using military power but this involves great cost. Eventually the cost will be too great and the power will decline and be replaced as evidence by the decline of Britain in 1873. (Nye 1990 p. 3) The United States has undoubtedly been the great power of the 20thCentury. Will it remain so during the 21st century or will it fall and be replaced by China thus confirming Kennedy’s thesis that all great powers will eventually follow this decline thus paving the way for the next great power? There are those who believe the era of the superpower is coming to amend. Fukuyama believes that states will not need to rival each other for power. The spread of liberal democracy and its sidekick liberal economy has â€Å"triumphed† over other regimes. (Fukuyama 1992). It is further believed that open economies create interdependency and sharing of common interests. (Nye 1997-98 p. 76). Also, the state is in relative decline due to the emergence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and (World Bank) and also MNCs (multinational corporations. (Bailys Smith 164). Even in the US Congress the former House of Representatives speaker Newt Gingrich does not regard China’s growth as in any way a threat whilst there are those who have views to the contrary. This highlights how the theoretical debate translates into apolitical one. There are those who view the universalism of western liberalism as unchallengeable and now the norm. This view may be borne out by the fragmentation of the Soviet Union but Matthew Rees views China’s position as similar to that of the Soviet Union in that it threatens western values of liberty and democracy. (Nye 1997-98 p.65-66) . Mearsheimer has also warned of complacency against the Chinese threat, stating of the current good relation between the two states: â€Å"this US policy (of containment) is misguided. A wealthy China would not be a status quo power, but an aggressive state, determined to achieve regional hegemony† (Mearsheimer 2001) Another writer in this field Joseph Nye refutes the claim that the state is in relative decline. His thesis is that the classic realist view of states as the most important actors cannot be disputed due merely to the rise of NGOs. This is because it underestimates the nature of the system of states that is anarchic in structure. Therefore if there is no higher authority to settle disputes the state cannot leave its survival to others. It must ensure its own survival and the only way this can be done is for the state to increase its power capabilities. (Bailys Smith 164). Thus in regard to on-state actors it is â€Å"business as usual† in that non-state actors must still work within a system of states. Thus states will still vie for power within these organisations. (Bailys Smith p. 173). This is the soft power element of the state. Definition of power â€Å"Man’s control over the minds and actions of other men†. (Morgenthau (1948) cited in Bailys Smith p. 173) Power is a highly contested concept because it is difficult to assess what elements actually constitute power. The traditional view of powers the possession of resources that include the size of population and territory, military might and economic strength. (Nye 1990 p. 26). Thus the resources of each state can be measured and compared. But measurement is not enough as evidenced during World War Two when France and Britain had more tanks that Germany but still Germany was able to outmanoeuvre the allies. Therefore when assessing power we also need to assess a state’s ability to convert its resources into such power assume states can do this more effectively than others. (Nye 1990 p.27). These avenues to power will be explored and the evidence that China has these capabilities will be extrapolated. The basis for power does not remain unchanged and must be assessed in its own context. For example the basis for power in 18th Century Europe was its population as it provided soldiers and tax resources. Today it is much more difficult to pinpoint the resources that provide the basis for power. (Nye 1990 p. 27) It is therefore not sufficient to look at the concept of power merely in terms of hard power or tangible resources. As Nye has noted in the post-cold war era there has been a shift in the balance of power in the anarchic system. The bipolar world has shifted to one that is unipolar with the US as the sole superpower. The US has exhibited all the usual traits associated with this position such as military, economic and territorial strength. But advances in technology and the emergence of NGOs and MNCs have meant a closer more interdependent world. Interdependence between states does not mean co-operation as liberals purport. It can be used to further national interest and this type of influence is the intangible soft power element of state apparatus. (Nye 1990 p.30). We can see soft power in action through the Washington consensus where the US is the leader in these institutions. We can also see soft power through the spread of the US’s liberal ideology in terms of economics and politics in what Fukuyama has called the â€Å"Triumph of Liberal Democracy†. (Fukuyama, 1992). This soft power has served to reinforce the US’s hard power resources by gaining it consent and legitimacy as the dominant power. (Nye 1990 p. 33). The universalism of American culture has also helped to further the power of the US by enabling it to establish values and beliefs that are consistent with its own society. Therefore the thesis of this dissertation is that China will be the next superpower by maximizing it’s hard power resources to secure itself in the anarchic system of states. Also, due to interdependence among states and the growth forgoes and MNCs it will seek soft power in its pursuit of power capabilities. The consequences of this systemic shift will mean the promotion of Eastern collective values over Western liberal individualistic tendencies. Part One: Hard Power Resources The Economy: If, as Kennedy suggests, China’s rise will be at the expense of the US, then at present most US concerns are directed at rapidly growing Chinese economy. There are certainly some impressive claims being made about the rise of Chinese economic power. Jeremy Warner writes that â€Å"like it or not, from China’s impact on finite world resources to climate change and the laws of supply and demand, it is transforming the way we live with a speed barely imaginable just a few years ago(The Independent January 27, 2006). Over the last 27 years, China has grown at an average rate of 9.6 present per annum, reaching a GDP of  £2.2 trillion in 2005 (The Independent January 27, 2006). In 1979, China represented 1 per cent of the world economy, with foreign trade totalling $20.6 billion. Today China accounts for 4 per cent of the world economy, with $851 billion in foreign trade, the third largest in the world (Fijian 2005, p19).There is of course still a lot of progress to be made – China’s economy for example is still only one seventh the size of that of the US(Fijian 2005, p19) but it is the rate of growth, along with plans for future expansion, the country’s high savings ratio, and plans to expand supplies of nuclear , clean coal, hydro-electric and renewable forms of energy that lead US experts to believe that one day China will challenge the US as the world’s dominant superpower. Larry Summers, former US Treasury Secretary has compared the integration of China into the w orld economy as one of the three great economic events of the last millennium – on a par with the renaissance and the industrial revolution (The Independent, July 23, 2005). The US has had similar fears about economic competition in the past. In the early 1980s it had concerns about the economic successes being enjoyed by Germany and Japan – fears that were allayed after stagnation in both countries. With China however, US fears appear to be deeper-rooted, primarily at the incredible rate of progress seen in China. Whilst the US economy may still be much larger at present, the rate of growth in China will continue to narrow the gap quickly. And of course, there is an ideological issue at the heart of the US fears about China– how is a Communist country succeeding where others have stumbled? The answer lies partly in America’s own attempts to take advantage of the economic conditions in China when Deng Xiaoping began to open up China to the rest of the world. China had historically been an insular nation, separated from the rest of the world and failing to make the most of its earlier technological advances. Deng understood that whilst China had a huge labour force, to succeed it needed to be organised, competitive in international markets and producing the type of goods that the rest of the world wanted to buy. For this to happen, China would need help from the outside world. The result has been huge foreign investments as companies from across the world have attempted to take advantage of China’s low labour costs. As Stephen King concludes, foreign investors have turned China into the world’s biggest assembly plant: â€Å"China may be a one-party state, but the authorities know all about Adam Smith and the division of labour† (The Independent, February 13, 2006). China is gradually picking off the economies of other G7 nations. Whilst its economy is still considerably smaller than Americas, by the end of 2004 it was bigger economically than France, Italy and Canada(The Independent, February 13, 2006). Germany and Japan are likely tube overtaken soon and then China will have the US firmly in its sights. It will have the opportunity to challenge US regional and global hegemony. Whilst there is an optimistic view that the economic growth in China will lead to long-term mutually beneficial cooperation with the US, more likely outcome is growing tension between the two. As China continues to grow, it will gradually begin to demand more of the world’s scarce resources – oil prices for example are already high and may be pushed higher by Chinese demand. The same will happen with other commodities with the result that China’s success increases the commodity bill for US consumers and increases global competition for raw materials. The US consumer may also put pressure on the government to curb Chinese economic expansion. With petrol being so lightly taxed in the US, motorists are affected directly by oil price rises. As The Economist reports: â€Å"they want somebody to blame and they may have heard that China is scouring the world to lock op oil supplies for its own ‘energy security’† (The Economist, September 3, 2005). Both the US and China have some common economic interests. Both benefit from free trade for example. However, with China now exporting six times as much to the US as it imports from it (The Economist, September3, 2005)., it is now China that has the most to gain, something of an irony after years of America hammering on its door to access Chinese markets. There have also been concerns in the US that China is trying to but its way into strategic assets within the US. In June 2005,CNOOC, a Chinese state controlled company attempted to buy Unocal, medium sized US oil company. Hawks within the US administration argued against allowing oil firms to fall into Chinese hands and, with public opinion in the US against the deal, it eventually fell through. The Chinese view on globalisation has been mixed. There is a view that globalisation gives a stronger reason for economic cooperation between economically strong states and certainly the acceptance of global brands into Chinese culture supports the argument that it has embraced globalisation. On the other hand, globalisation tends to reinforce US and Western interests first and foremost and the 1997-99 Asian financial crisis has convinced many within China that it could expose Chinese economic vulnerability. As Foot concludes: â€Å"with America’s advantage in technological innovation, revolution in military affairs and cultural domination, globalisation seemed to confer gains on Washington and thus further to reinforce the unipolar structure† (Foot2006 p82). Military Power To assess China’s rise to Superpower status we need to look at how it ranks in regard to military strength and capability. (Waltz 1979 p.131). The Neo-Realist view is that the nation-state is the most natural form of society and it should be defended for the national good. (Kennedy p. 90). Armies are essential for controlling land and bringing security to the nation state and which is the main objective in a world of states in a system of anarchy. (Mearsheimer p. 86). Due to competition for resources in a world of anarchy military powers a crucial instrument of the national interest. (Garnett, 1987 p.71). Thus military power is monopolised by states and used to protect states from external force. It is the capacity to kill, coerce or destroy and plays a significant part in international politics that will not be supplanted until the system of states is transformed. (Garnett 1987, p. 69-71). Those who have the most military strength are usually the most influential and the most respected in the system and certainly a proposition shared by Mao Ste-Tung’s saying that â€Å"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun†. (Garnett 1987, p.74). Recent analyses of the Chinese military threat from Washington have expressed growing concern. The 2005 Pentagon report concluded that China could threaten not just its smaller regional neighbours like Taiwan but eventually â€Å"modern militaries operating in the region.† This can be taken to include the US. (Washington Post July 23, 2005). Yee and Storey suggest that there are a number of contributing factors to the belief that China is gradually attempting to extend its influence in the region – 1)its territorial disputes with other countries in the region have intensified, 2) its rapid economic development has accelerated its military modernisation process and 3)China has elevated re-unification with Taiwan as a higher priority following the successful retrocession of Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in1999(Yee and Storey, p4). These factors can be interpreted as evidence of strategic expansion in the region, with territorial claims on the islets in the South China Sea being seen in particular by China’s neighbours as a sign of a policy of expansion. The hard-line policy on Taiwan and the refusal to abandon the threat of military force against it is also seen as evidence of an aggressive state. As Harry Harding writes: â€Å"the rest of the world has viewed the prospect of a Greater China with both fascination and alarm. Some see it in benign terms, as a dynamic common market that provides growing opportunities for trade and investment. More frequently, however, there has been concern that the combination of economic and military resources available to China will pose a significant threat to the commercial vitality and the strategic stability of the rest of the region† (Yee and Storey p4). There is certainly evidence that China is building up its military capability to the point where it could at least challenge the US in the region. Whilst Kennedy had written in 1989 that China’s army is strong numerically but â€Å"woefully under equipped in modern instruments of war†(Kennedy 1989, p577), more recently China has bolstered its naval, submarine and cruise missile capabilities, is in the process of purchasing advanced aircraft systems and is building a nuclear missile arsenal that is capable of striking virtually all of the United States(Washington Post, July 23, 2005). Whilst much has been made of Chinese reforms since 1979 since in terms of economic growth, it is important to realise that there have been great efforts made to reorganise the military from the early 1980sonwards. Plans were put in place to reduce the People’s Liberation Army from 4.2 million to 3 million (Kennedy 1989, p579) and develop a much more professional force with a higher quality of personnel. In 2000, the total estimated strength of the Chinese military was 2.5million, of which an estimated 1.8 million are ground forces. The overall strategy for the PLA is an overall reduction and reorganisation of both equipment and personnel with a view to creating a more modern and mobile army. In terms of equipment, China falls a long way behind the US military but is looking to modernise. It has a tank inventory of around10,000,many of which are Soviet or Chinese built. Its air force possesses around 4,350 aircraft, the majority of which are combat aircraft. The government is also looking to develop a local aerospace industry that would have the capability to produce technologically advanced aircraft, whilst continuing to import aircraft from Russia. The government also has plans to buy a number of AWAC aircraft from Israel. More recently there have been statements from Chinese military strategists that indicate that China is gearing up to use its military hard power resources. Taiwan will be the most likely arena for the flexing of Chinese military power. General Wen Zinger , political commissar of the Academy of Military Science has stated that the Taiwan problem â€Å"is of far reaching significance to breaking international forces blockade against China’s rise†¦ to rise suddenly, China must pass through oceans and go out of the oceans in its future development(Washington Post July 23, 2005). For proponents of the Chinese threat, such statements support the realist view that China is seeking to increase then demonstrate its power in the international arena. Just as Morgenthau argues that the pursuit of power in world politics is both natural and justified, surrealists will argue that China will become unsatisfied with the existing global power structure and adopt a policy of imperial expansionism aimed at attaining both regional and global hegemony (Yeaned Storey 2002, p7). Whilst China also has the option of economic and cultural means to accomplish its strategic objectives, military force remains the most traditional form of imperialism, and the most likely course for China to take once its economy is fully developed. Joseph Nye observes that the ‘rise’ of China is actually a misnomer and that a more accurate term would be the re-emergence of China. Certainly, China has long been a major power in East Asia, and technologically and economically it was the world’s leader (though without global reach) from 500 to 1500, before being overtaken by Europe and America. Indeed, China’s re-emergence would equate with Kennedy’s argument that power across the globe is cyclical. China already has some issues with the US and the other great powers over foreign policies. As a member of the UN Security Council it has traditionally opposed the views of Western states on the international arena and is continuing to do so in spite of its closer economic ties with the West. Whilst China may accept that at the present time it must operate in a US-dominated unipolar world, it believes that its future should at least lie in a multipolar world encompassing the US, China, Europe, Russia and Japan (Foot, 2006, p81). Certainly during the 1990sthere was Chinese unease at the continued American dominance in global affairs with issues such as further NATO expansion eastward, the renegotiation of terms of the US-Japan alliance, US defence missile systems and intervention in Kosovo being of particular concern. China’s population can be both a hard power resource and a burden. Its current population of 1.3 billion is expected to continue to rise until2030 when it will peak at 1.5 billion before going into decline. Population of such a size is of course a huge resource in terms of manpower, yet a huge burden on the domestic economy and from a domestic security point of view and massive number of people over which to maintain effective control. Western states continue to lobby the Chinese government for greater democratisation, yet the fear of anarchy from a more liberalised system would appear to be keeping the leadership committed to an authoritarian regime. From a realist perspective, it is the combination of economic and military power of China that will ultimately lead to conflict with thus. The build-up of such hard resources will be seen as a threat by thus regardless of any ‘good neighbour’ policies that Chinese diplomats may point to. Realists within the US policy making sphere will argue that China is merely biding its time until its economy is strong enough to provide a basis for future hegemony. Thucydides argument that the belief in the inevitability of conflict can be the cause of war is appropriate here – if both sides believe they will eventually end up in conflict, the military build-up will continue, economic cooperation will fade away, and conflict will become unavoidable. China will eventually have to seek further power in order. Certainly, as the Chinese economy continues to grow, it is likely that its military power will increase. For example, early in 2005, it announced a 12.6 per cent increase in defence spending (Nye, Daily Times March 27, 2005), something that makes it appear more dangerous touts neighbours and further complicating US military commitments in Asia. A RAND study has projected that China’s military expenditure will be more than six times higher than Japans by 2015 and accumulated military capital stock at around five times higher (Daily Times, March27, 2005), again something that suggests it is looking to achieve regional hegemony before aiming its sights higher and looking for global hegemony. Whilst a global military challenge to the US in the short term is unlikely, there is certainly a possibility that China could challenge the US in East Asia, or even more probably over Taiwan. China would almost certainly intervene militarily if Taiwan were ever to declare independence, irrespective of the military or economic cost. No Chinese leader can afford to be seen as the one that lost Taiwan permanently and at present, the West’s main concern about the Chinese military rests ar Analysis of China as a Superpower Analysis of China as a Superpower The Dragon Awakes – Will China be the next superpower? China is a sleeping dragon. When it awakes, the world will shake†. (Eccleston H, 2004, p290). Napoleon Bonaparte made this prophetic comment regarding China in 1808 and it would seem that today China has indeed awoken. (Optimize, 2004p. 1). China has had unprecedented economic growth at around 9.5% perineum, a statistic even more impressive amazing bearing in mind that only in 1978 China was poorer than Korea and Taiwan were in the 1960s. (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). China also shows signs of extending its economic reach and is expanding its ventures into developed states. Only recently the Chinese firm Nanjing bought the British ailing car firm MG rover for  £50 million. (BBC News 2006 p. 1). Also in 2005 the Chinese Lenovo Group acquired IBM’s PC business making Lenovo the third largest PC Company in the world. (Economic Times, 2005 p. 1) There is also a huge inflow of FDI (foreign direct investment) into China. China has established 22,245 new firms attracting $59.2 billion in FDI making a total of $33.4 billion in 2003. This makes China the top destination for FDI and a country that firms want to do business with. (People’s Daily, 2003). It is thought by some observers that China’s economy at its present rate could eventually overtake that of the US(United States). (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). If this is so, could China surpass the US in other areas and displace the US as the world superpower. There will be huge implication for international relations if this is to be the case. The writer’s hypothesis is that China’s rise to superpower status will mean a shift of economic, military and cultural power from the west tithe east. Drawing on the work of John Mearsheimer that states are power maximizes, China will continue to pursue power in a bid to become the most powerful state in the international system, a position currently occupied by the US. (Mearsheimer 2001 p. 21). Even those who advocate that the spread of liberalism will lessen the need for the pursuit of power have not been able to ignore this development. Fukuyama in his book â€Å"America at the Crossroads† says that social engineering like that seen in Iraq leads to unexpected consequences and undermines its own ends. Therefore actions which are put forward as promoting peace and democracy turn into something they were not intended to be, the promotion of the national interest of the US. (New York Times, 2006 p. 2). Therefore a state whose power is so big it is unchecked is unable to police itself and act benevolently in the anarchic system. Its main concern is the accumulation of power and it will not be satisfied as purported by Waltz’ defensive realist view, by only seeking to acquire as much power so as to feel secure. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 169-170). A world dominated by China A world dominated by China may be very different than the present world that has for the last two centuries been dominated by a western power. As already mentioned China’s rise will not result in it being status quo power and therefore it will not be happy to work within system determined by western values. (Guardian 2005 p. 2). China has different values to that of the west and its rise will lead to the promotion of those values through its economic, military and institutional power. Therefore as Huntingdon notes, the new fault-lines will not be between ideologies like the two World Wars and the Cold War but between civilizations. This is due to the different views that cultures have in regard to relationships such as the citizen and the state, husband and wife, liberty and equality. (Huntingdon 1993 p.25). The west has promoted its values of liberalism as being the universal values of the world community. But due to the anarchic structure of the system these values have been used to promote its national interest. China will appeal to those states who have different view of the world that the one being put forward by the US and other western states. These states will have similar cultural values to China which stress the subordination of individual rights and elevate consensus differ from the western beliefs of liberty, equality and individualism. (Huntingdon 1993 p. 29). Indeed China is forging links with states that the US deems as rogue states such as Iran with its recent gas deal worth $100 billion. The US has imposed economic sanctions on Iran and this gas deal is a clear sign that China does not intend to work within a system determined by the US. Further, Iran is looking to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which could act as a counterweight to US institutional power. (Asia Times 2004 p.1-2). The writer will look at China’s potential superpower status using the neo-realist theory and its conceptual and methodological framework. This will entail the use of secondary research methods by exploring the concepts of neo-realism through the scholars in this field. This theory rose to prominence during the late 1970s due to the writings of Kenneth Waltz. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 49). It rests on the earlier realist perspective of writers such as E H Carr and Hans Morgenthau, which was dominant in international relations in the post-World War II era. Realism also rose due to the inability of the liberal perspective and its principles to maintain peace in Europe. (Bur chill, 2001 p. 71). It was concerned with the causes of war and ways in which it can be prevented. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 48). EH Carr’s â€Å"The Twenty Years Crisis† was a critique of the liberal view that co-operation, under institutions such as the League of Nations, would render war obsolete. Carr’s theory was proven when World War I broke out the day after his book was published. (Bur chill 2001 p.71). Morgenthau’s work, Politics Amongst Nations (1948) sought to apply positivist methodology used in the natural sciences to international relations. Thus we can draw objective knowledge and laws from the social world in the same way that we can from the natural world. (Bur chill 2001 p. 77). He maintains that politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature and that human nature is reflected in the way states behave. The outcomes of the interaction of states are due to the behaviour of statesmen and thus human nature. (Bur chill 2001 p. 83). Morgenthau and Carr draw on a long philosophical heritage going back to the writings of Thucydides 460BCto 406BC and Niccole Machiavelli 1469 to 1527. The neo-realist perspective came about in response to the rise of liberal internationalism and their interdependency theory in the1970s. Neo-realism engages with this approach that deems the state tube less significant in an interdependent world due to the rise of institutions, regimes and transnational corporations. (Bailys Smith 2005 171). Realism recognised that it had to develop new tools to analyse these new developments. Thus realism reinvented itself sane-realism, acknowledging that such non-governmental actors exist, but they have to work within an anarchical international system where there is no overall authority above that of the sovereign state. This means states can never fully co-operate within these institutions due to the possibility that one state may gain more out of this co-operation. The anarchic structure of the system is where neo-realism departs from the earlier realist theory that human nature determines how states behave. Waltz’ systemic approach Waltz’ systemic approach is that it is the structure of the international system that determines the way states behave and not human nature. Despite this departure it can be said that there are core theoretical elements that underpin the earlier classical realism, modern realism of Carr and Morgenthau and Waltz’s structural realism. This is known as the realist triangle of state, survival and self-help. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The primary actor in the international system is the state. This can be traced back to Thucydides’ time when the unit of analysis waste city-state or polis. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). That said, Carr and Morgenthau were less state-centric in that they did not envisage the state as the final form of political community. (Burchill2001 p. 76). The state is the only legitimate representative of the people and it uses this legitimacy to wield its authority within and outside the state. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The second core element is that of survival. The priority of the state is to ensure its own survival in the anarchic structure of the international system. This concept is present in Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince† which details what leaders must do to keep hold of their power. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 174). The third concept is that of self-help that Waltz deems necessary to gain security in an anarchic structure. Hedley Bull’s â€Å"The Anarchical Society†(1977) concurs with Waltz that all states exist in an anarchical society where there is no higher authority than the sovereign state. Therefore national interest is the state’s first duty that ensures the right for citizens to feel secure within state borders. Self-help is necessary as this cannot been trusted to anyone else and this is achieved through the accumulation of power to reduce vulnerability in the anarchic system of states. The state’s first â€Å"law of motion† is to preserve the state and in order to do this it must pursue power. (Bailys Smith p. 162-3, 169). The writer has also been inspired by the academic Paul Kennedy (1989)in his book: â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. The writer will use this thesis to assess whether China is rising at the expense of the decline of the US. According to Kennedy’s thesis the rise and fall of power is cyclical thus once a great power has arisen it must inevitably fall. A state that has achieved economic strength will protect that strength using military power but this involves great cost. Eventually the cost will be too great and the power will decline and be replaced as evidence by the decline of Britain in 1873. (Nye 1990 p. 3) The United States has undoubtedly been the great power of the 20thCentury. Will it remain so during the 21st century or will it fall and be replaced by China thus confirming Kennedy’s thesis that all great powers will eventually follow this decline thus paving the way for the next great power? There are those who believe the era of the superpower is coming to amend. Fukuyama believes that states will not need to rival each other for power. The spread of liberal democracy and its sidekick liberal economy has â€Å"triumphed† over other regimes. (Fukuyama 1992). It is further believed that open economies create interdependency and sharing of common interests. (Nye 1997-98 p. 76). Also, the state is in relative decline due to the emergence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and (World Bank) and also MNCs (multinational corporations. (Bailys Smith 164). Even in the US Congress the former House of Representatives speaker Newt Gingrich does not regard China’s growth as in any way a threat whilst there are those who have views to the contrary. This highlights how the theoretical debate translates into apolitical one. There are those who view the universalism of western liberalism as unchallengeable and now the norm. This view may be borne out by the fragmentation of the Soviet Union but Matthew Rees views China’s position as similar to that of the Soviet Union in that it threatens western values of liberty and democracy. (Nye 1997-98 p.65-66) . Mearsheimer has also warned of complacency against the Chinese threat, stating of the current good relation between the two states: â€Å"this US policy (of containment) is misguided. A wealthy China would not be a status quo power, but an aggressive state, determined to achieve regional hegemony† (Mearsheimer 2001) Another writer in this field Joseph Nye refutes the claim that the state is in relative decline. His thesis is that the classic realist view of states as the most important actors cannot be disputed due merely to the rise of NGOs. This is because it underestimates the nature of the system of states that is anarchic in structure. Therefore if there is no higher authority to settle disputes the state cannot leave its survival to others. It must ensure its own survival and the only way this can be done is for the state to increase its power capabilities. (Bailys Smith 164). Thus in regard to on-state actors it is â€Å"business as usual† in that non-state actors must still work within a system of states. Thus states will still vie for power within these organisations. (Bailys Smith p. 173). This is the soft power element of the state. Definition of power â€Å"Man’s control over the minds and actions of other men†. (Morgenthau (1948) cited in Bailys Smith p. 173) Power is a highly contested concept because it is difficult to assess what elements actually constitute power. The traditional view of powers the possession of resources that include the size of population and territory, military might and economic strength. (Nye 1990 p. 26). Thus the resources of each state can be measured and compared. But measurement is not enough as evidenced during World War Two when France and Britain had more tanks that Germany but still Germany was able to outmanoeuvre the allies. Therefore when assessing power we also need to assess a state’s ability to convert its resources into such power assume states can do this more effectively than others. (Nye 1990 p.27). These avenues to power will be explored and the evidence that China has these capabilities will be extrapolated. The basis for power does not remain unchanged and must be assessed in its own context. For example the basis for power in 18th Century Europe was its population as it provided soldiers and tax resources. Today it is much more difficult to pinpoint the resources that provide the basis for power. (Nye 1990 p. 27) It is therefore not sufficient to look at the concept of power merely in terms of hard power or tangible resources. As Nye has noted in the post-cold war era there has been a shift in the balance of power in the anarchic system. The bipolar world has shifted to one that is unipolar with the US as the sole superpower. The US has exhibited all the usual traits associated with this position such as military, economic and territorial strength. But advances in technology and the emergence of NGOs and MNCs have meant a closer more interdependent world. Interdependence between states does not mean co-operation as liberals purport. It can be used to further national interest and this type of influence is the intangible soft power element of state apparatus. (Nye 1990 p.30). We can see soft power in action through the Washington consensus where the US is the leader in these institutions. We can also see soft power through the spread of the US’s liberal ideology in terms of economics and politics in what Fukuyama has called the â€Å"Triumph of Liberal Democracy†. (Fukuyama, 1992). This soft power has served to reinforce the US’s hard power resources by gaining it consent and legitimacy as the dominant power. (Nye 1990 p. 33). The universalism of American culture has also helped to further the power of the US by enabling it to establish values and beliefs that are consistent with its own society. Therefore the thesis of this dissertation is that China will be the next superpower by maximizing it’s hard power resources to secure itself in the anarchic system of states. Also, due to interdependence among states and the growth forgoes and MNCs it will seek soft power in its pursuit of power capabilities. The consequences of this systemic shift will mean the promotion of Eastern collective values over Western liberal individualistic tendencies. Part One: Hard Power Resources The Economy: If, as Kennedy suggests, China’s rise will be at the expense of the US, then at present most US concerns are directed at rapidly growing Chinese economy. There are certainly some impressive claims being made about the rise of Chinese economic power. Jeremy Warner writes that â€Å"like it or not, from China’s impact on finite world resources to climate change and the laws of supply and demand, it is transforming the way we live with a speed barely imaginable just a few years ago(The Independent January 27, 2006). Over the last 27 years, China has grown at an average rate of 9.6 present per annum, reaching a GDP of  £2.2 trillion in 2005 (The Independent January 27, 2006). In 1979, China represented 1 per cent of the world economy, with foreign trade totalling $20.6 billion. Today China accounts for 4 per cent of the world economy, with $851 billion in foreign trade, the third largest in the world (Fijian 2005, p19).There is of course still a lot of progress to be made – China’s economy for example is still only one seventh the size of that of the US(Fijian 2005, p19) but it is the rate of growth, along with plans for future expansion, the country’s high savings ratio, and plans to expand supplies of nuclear , clean coal, hydro-electric and renewable forms of energy that lead US experts to believe that one day China will challenge the US as the world’s dominant superpower. Larry Summers, former US Treasury Secretary has compared the integration of China into the w orld economy as one of the three great economic events of the last millennium – on a par with the renaissance and the industrial revolution (The Independent, July 23, 2005). The US has had similar fears about economic competition in the past. In the early 1980s it had concerns about the economic successes being enjoyed by Germany and Japan – fears that were allayed after stagnation in both countries. With China however, US fears appear to be deeper-rooted, primarily at the incredible rate of progress seen in China. Whilst the US economy may still be much larger at present, the rate of growth in China will continue to narrow the gap quickly. And of course, there is an ideological issue at the heart of the US fears about China– how is a Communist country succeeding where others have stumbled? The answer lies partly in America’s own attempts to take advantage of the economic conditions in China when Deng Xiaoping began to open up China to the rest of the world. China had historically been an insular nation, separated from the rest of the world and failing to make the most of its earlier technological advances. Deng understood that whilst China had a huge labour force, to succeed it needed to be organised, competitive in international markets and producing the type of goods that the rest of the world wanted to buy. For this to happen, China would need help from the outside world. The result has been huge foreign investments as companies from across the world have attempted to take advantage of China’s low labour costs. As Stephen King concludes, foreign investors have turned China into the world’s biggest assembly plant: â€Å"China may be a one-party state, but the authorities know all about Adam Smith and the division of labour† (The Independent, February 13, 2006). China is gradually picking off the economies of other G7 nations. Whilst its economy is still considerably smaller than Americas, by the end of 2004 it was bigger economically than France, Italy and Canada(The Independent, February 13, 2006). Germany and Japan are likely tube overtaken soon and then China will have the US firmly in its sights. It will have the opportunity to challenge US regional and global hegemony. Whilst there is an optimistic view that the economic growth in China will lead to long-term mutually beneficial cooperation with the US, more likely outcome is growing tension between the two. As China continues to grow, it will gradually begin to demand more of the world’s scarce resources – oil prices for example are already high and may be pushed higher by Chinese demand. The same will happen with other commodities with the result that China’s success increases the commodity bill for US consumers and increases global competition for raw materials. The US consumer may also put pressure on the government to curb Chinese economic expansion. With petrol being so lightly taxed in the US, motorists are affected directly by oil price rises. As The Economist reports: â€Å"they want somebody to blame and they may have heard that China is scouring the world to lock op oil supplies for its own ‘energy security’† (The Economist, September 3, 2005). Both the US and China have some common economic interests. Both benefit from free trade for example. However, with China now exporting six times as much to the US as it imports from it (The Economist, September3, 2005)., it is now China that has the most to gain, something of an irony after years of America hammering on its door to access Chinese markets. There have also been concerns in the US that China is trying to but its way into strategic assets within the US. In June 2005,CNOOC, a Chinese state controlled company attempted to buy Unocal, medium sized US oil company. Hawks within the US administration argued against allowing oil firms to fall into Chinese hands and, with public opinion in the US against the deal, it eventually fell through. The Chinese view on globalisation has been mixed. There is a view that globalisation gives a stronger reason for economic cooperation between economically strong states and certainly the acceptance of global brands into Chinese culture supports the argument that it has embraced globalisation. On the other hand, globalisation tends to reinforce US and Western interests first and foremost and the 1997-99 Asian financial crisis has convinced many within China that it could expose Chinese economic vulnerability. As Foot concludes: â€Å"with America’s advantage in technological innovation, revolution in military affairs and cultural domination, globalisation seemed to confer gains on Washington and thus further to reinforce the unipolar structure† (Foot2006 p82). Military Power To assess China’s rise to Superpower status we need to look at how it ranks in regard to military strength and capability. (Waltz 1979 p.131). The Neo-Realist view is that the nation-state is the most natural form of society and it should be defended for the national good. (Kennedy p. 90). Armies are essential for controlling land and bringing security to the nation state and which is the main objective in a world of states in a system of anarchy. (Mearsheimer p. 86). Due to competition for resources in a world of anarchy military powers a crucial instrument of the national interest. (Garnett, 1987 p.71). Thus military power is monopolised by states and used to protect states from external force. It is the capacity to kill, coerce or destroy and plays a significant part in international politics that will not be supplanted until the system of states is transformed. (Garnett 1987, p. 69-71). Those who have the most military strength are usually the most influential and the most respected in the system and certainly a proposition shared by Mao Ste-Tung’s saying that â€Å"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun†. (Garnett 1987, p.74). Recent analyses of the Chinese military threat from Washington have expressed growing concern. The 2005 Pentagon report concluded that China could threaten not just its smaller regional neighbours like Taiwan but eventually â€Å"modern militaries operating in the region.† This can be taken to include the US. (Washington Post July 23, 2005). Yee and Storey suggest that there are a number of contributing factors to the belief that China is gradually attempting to extend its influence in the region – 1)its territorial disputes with other countries in the region have intensified, 2) its rapid economic development has accelerated its military modernisation process and 3)China has elevated re-unification with Taiwan as a higher priority following the successful retrocession of Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in1999(Yee and Storey, p4). These factors can be interpreted as evidence of strategic expansion in the region, with territorial claims on the islets in the South China Sea being seen in particular by China’s neighbours as a sign of a policy of expansion. The hard-line policy on Taiwan and the refusal to abandon the threat of military force against it is also seen as evidence of an aggressive state. As Harry Harding writes: â€Å"the rest of the world has viewed the prospect of a Greater China with both fascination and alarm. Some see it in benign terms, as a dynamic common market that provides growing opportunities for trade and investment. More frequently, however, there has been concern that the combination of economic and military resources available to China will pose a significant threat to the commercial vitality and the strategic stability of the rest of the region† (Yee and Storey p4). There is certainly evidence that China is building up its military capability to the point where it could at least challenge the US in the region. Whilst Kennedy had written in 1989 that China’s army is strong numerically but â€Å"woefully under equipped in modern instruments of war†(Kennedy 1989, p577), more recently China has bolstered its naval, submarine and cruise missile capabilities, is in the process of purchasing advanced aircraft systems and is building a nuclear missile arsenal that is capable of striking virtually all of the United States(Washington Post, July 23, 2005). Whilst much has been made of Chinese reforms since 1979 since in terms of economic growth, it is important to realise that there have been great efforts made to reorganise the military from the early 1980sonwards. Plans were put in place to reduce the People’s Liberation Army from 4.2 million to 3 million (Kennedy 1989, p579) and develop a much more professional force with a higher quality of personnel. In 2000, the total estimated strength of the Chinese military was 2.5million, of which an estimated 1.8 million are ground forces. The overall strategy for the PLA is an overall reduction and reorganisation of both equipment and personnel with a view to creating a more modern and mobile army. In terms of equipment, China falls a long way behind the US military but is looking to modernise. It has a tank inventory of around10,000,many of which are Soviet or Chinese built. Its air force possesses around 4,350 aircraft, the majority of which are combat aircraft. The government is also looking to develop a local aerospace industry that would have the capability to produce technologically advanced aircraft, whilst continuing to import aircraft from Russia. The government also has plans to buy a number of AWAC aircraft from Israel. More recently there have been statements from Chinese military strategists that indicate that China is gearing up to use its military hard power resources. Taiwan will be the most likely arena for the flexing of Chinese military power. General Wen Zinger , political commissar of the Academy of Military Science has stated that the Taiwan problem â€Å"is of far reaching significance to breaking international forces blockade against China’s rise†¦ to rise suddenly, China must pass through oceans and go out of the oceans in its future development(Washington Post July 23, 2005). For proponents of the Chinese threat, such statements support the realist view that China is seeking to increase then demonstrate its power in the international arena. Just as Morgenthau argues that the pursuit of power in world politics is both natural and justified, surrealists will argue that China will become unsatisfied with the existing global power structure and adopt a policy of imperial expansionism aimed at attaining both regional and global hegemony (Yeaned Storey 2002, p7). Whilst China also has the option of economic and cultural means to accomplish its strategic objectives, military force remains the most traditional form of imperialism, and the most likely course for China to take once its economy is fully developed. Joseph Nye observes that the ‘rise’ of China is actually a misnomer and that a more accurate term would be the re-emergence of China. Certainly, China has long been a major power in East Asia, and technologically and economically it was the world’s leader (though without global reach) from 500 to 1500, before being overtaken by Europe and America. Indeed, China’s re-emergence would equate with Kennedy’s argument that power across the globe is cyclical. China already has some issues with the US and the other great powers over foreign policies. As a member of the UN Security Council it has traditionally opposed the views of Western states on the international arena and is continuing to do so in spite of its closer economic ties with the West. Whilst China may accept that at the present time it must operate in a US-dominated unipolar world, it believes that its future should at least lie in a multipolar world encompassing the US, China, Europe, Russia and Japan (Foot, 2006, p81). Certainly during the 1990sthere was Chinese unease at the continued American dominance in global affairs with issues such as further NATO expansion eastward, the renegotiation of terms of the US-Japan alliance, US defence missile systems and intervention in Kosovo being of particular concern. China’s population can be both a hard power resource and a burden. Its current population of 1.3 billion is expected to continue to rise until2030 when it will peak at 1.5 billion before going into decline. Population of such a size is of course a huge resource in terms of manpower, yet a huge burden on the domestic economy and from a domestic security point of view and massive number of people over which to maintain effective control. Western states continue to lobby the Chinese government for greater democratisation, yet the fear of anarchy from a more liberalised system would appear to be keeping the leadership committed to an authoritarian regime. From a realist perspective, it is the combination of economic and military power of China that will ultimately lead to conflict with thus. The build-up of such hard resources will be seen as a threat by thus regardless of any ‘good neighbour’ policies that Chinese diplomats may point to. Realists within the US policy making sphere will argue that China is merely biding its time until its economy is strong enough to provide a basis for future hegemony. Thucydides argument that the belief in the inevitability of conflict can be the cause of war is appropriate here – if both sides believe they will eventually end up in conflict, the military build-up will continue, economic cooperation will fade away, and conflict will become unavoidable. China will eventually have to seek further power in order. Certainly, as the Chinese economy continues to grow, it is likely that its military power will increase. For example, early in 2005, it announced a 12.6 per cent increase in defence spending (Nye, Daily Times March 27, 2005), something that makes it appear more dangerous touts neighbours and further complicating US military commitments in Asia. A RAND study has projected that China’s military expenditure will be more than six times higher than Japans by 2015 and accumulated military capital stock at around five times higher (Daily Times, March27, 2005), again something that suggests it is looking to achieve regional hegemony before aiming its sights higher and looking for global hegemony. Whilst a global military challenge to the US in the short term is unlikely, there is certainly a possibility that China could challenge the US in East Asia, or even more probably over Taiwan. China would almost certainly intervene militarily if Taiwan were ever to declare independence, irrespective of the military or economic cost. No Chinese leader can afford to be seen as the one that lost Taiwan permanently and at present, the West’s main concern about the Chinese military rests ar

Free Essays - The Mirage in The Great Gatsby :: Great Gatsby Essays

The Mirage in The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby, written by F. Scott Fitzgerald, is a book of love and tragedy that all leads back to dreams and ideas, but never reality. Gatsby is a man of great wealth and is truly rich. Or is he? The Great Gatsby has many disguises that play a major role in several characters' lives, but mostly Gatsby's'. Gatsby believes that he will be very successful and get what he wants, including Daisy, if he is rich. He succeeded in getting money and living a life of luxury, but is never truly rich. He is always so set on the future and what things could be if this, or if that happens, that he never lives in the present. Because Gatsby never lives in the present, he ends up doing that permanently, and by the end of the book, he lives no more. When Gatsby was alive, he seemed never to be happy, because he was never satisfied with himself; Gatsby tried to change himself. He always tried to reach for his vision, which is represented by the green light, but never seemed to achieve it because he didn't ever live in the life he had; Gatsby lived in the life he wanted. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses green light to represent the unreachable dream in the future that is always being sought after and wanted by Gatsby, but never obtained. In The Great Gatsby, the green light is visible to many and always distant. To some, like Tom, it is just a light, but to others, like Gatsby, it is their hopeful future. As Tom said in chapter one, "I glanced seaward-and distinguished nothing except a green light, minute and far away, that might have been the end of the dock. When I looked once more for Gatsby he had vanished, and I was alone again in the unquiet darkness"(Gatsby 26). He saw a green light. That is all, just a light that may have been at the end of the dock. When Gatsby vanished, this represented him approaching and trying to attain the green light, which was his future he sought after and believed in. As Marius Bewley agrees, the green light represents his faith, "An image of that green light, symbol of Gatsby's faith, burns across the bay,"(Bewley 24).

Nicaragua Research Paper

Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, but is also full of history, tradition and life. It is known for its great folk music, deep heritage and culture. Nicaragua is hidden jewel with warm, gorgeous culture and breathtaking nature. It is surrounded by its incredible history, culture and nature. Nicaragua is a little larger than New York State. The capital of Nicaragua is Managua and other major cities are Bluefield, Chinandega, Granada, Jinotega, Leon, Masaya, Matagalpa and Rivas. The climate on highlands is cooler and in lowlands is tropical.Nicaragua is warm and has many land that has lakes, mountains; rivers, volcanoes, sea and sun. The country is divided into three geographic regions which are the Pacific Lowlands on the west, the mountainous Central Region and the Atlantic Lowlands on the east. The central Region is an area with mountains and ranges over 3,281 feet above sea level. â€Å"There are oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the massive cloud forests of the region. † [1] There are many hikers and backpackers; many walk along the tree shaded paths which can lead you to clear waters of the mountain springs.Nicaragua’s tropical east coast is far different from the rest of the country. The climate is tropical with high temperature and high humidity. The city of Bluefields is located here, English mostly spoken. Nature lovers will find interest in the tropical forests of the area. â€Å"A great variety of birds are to be studied including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. † [2] Animal life in the area includes several different species of monkeys, ant-eaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs. The Pacific Lowlands area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca, on Nicaragua's Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua.From this lowland strip, you can view the Maribios mountain range, with its 25 volcanic cones, which towers over most of the beautiful and impressive beaches found anywhere else in Central America. This region is the most populated. About 27 percent of the nation's entire population lives in and around Managua, which is known as the capital city. In addition there are many beaches and resort communities located in the Pacific Lowlands. This area is the Spanish colonial heritage, many cities such as Granada and Leon are as well in Spanish colonial architecture and artifacts.In the year 1998, Hurricane Mitch tore into Nicaragua causing the worst natural disaster of the twentieth century. Till this day the country has slowly been reconstructing their economy. Nicaragua not only has suffered from economy issues but has suffered from political instability, civil war, poverty foreign intervention and natural disasters. Thousands of people died. Some were stuck in mudslides or drowned because rivers broke their banks, which caused towns and villages to flood. â€Å"Roads, bridges, houses, crops and animals were swept away, which left people with a d estroyed land, towns and villages. [3] In order for people to survive and stay safe they would climb trees, and hung from roofs of their home to escape the high dangerous waters. People were hungry, cold and some were sick because they were waiting to be rescued which took really long. Disease began to rapidly spread because decomposing bodies and rotting animal’s flesh contaminated the water supplies. As many as 3,000 people died the day Hurricane Mitch came. About more than a fifth of the population was, stranded in camps; most of people’s home and livelihoods were destroyed when Mitch hit Nicaragua.To rebuild the country would take decades and the estimate cost would be over one billion dollars. Nicaragua has dealt with other tragedies like the earthquake that destroyed many hotels, shops. The earthquake destroyed all offices in the year 1972. Sewage systems and the electricity poles were severely damaged. 4Hurricane Mitch has left a negative impact on the country i ncluding human lives were lost, crops were destroyed, major environmental damage, and there was also damage to highways, bridges, schools, electrical and water supply systems. Nicaragua is surrounded by its beautiful nature including its incredible history.The name ‘Nicaragua’ came from a chief named Nicarao. He was chief to a digenous tribe that settled in Lake Nicaragua around late 1400’s and early 1500’s. In 1524 Hernandez de Cordoda was the first Spanish settler to live in the region of Granada on Lake Nicaragua and Leon Managua. Nicaragua gained its independents from Spain in 1821, making the country part of the Mexican Empire and becoming a member of independent Central American. Nicaragua became an independent republic. The west side of the country was colonized by Spain in the 1520’s; it also has aspects of Spanish culture like other Spanish speaking Latin American Countries.The Eastern half of the country was once a British protectorate. 5à ¢â‚¬Å"There are several indigenous groups that still maintain a distant identity like the Miskitos, Sumo, Garifuna and Rama. † These groups still use their original languages and some speak English or Spanish. Spaniards settled in the Western Nicaragua in the early 1500’s. The Spaniards met three main tribes that each had their own languages and culture. Spanish is an official language that is spoken in Nicaragua and only seventy percent of the populations are Spanish speakers. Most of the Spanish speakers live either in highlands or lowlands.When the British setter came to Nicaragua they introduced English words to the Spanish speakers in the Western Nicaragua. The Creoles, which are the black people of the Caribbean region, were brought from colonial-era slaves. Creoles are English speakers, even though some speak Spanish as a second language. Creoles in Nicaragua included the Miskitos, Rama, and Sumo. Miskitos that speak English didn’t want anything to do with the Spanish culture. The Miskitos referred the Spanish speaking Nicaraguans as ‘los Espanoles’. The Creoles resented the Western Hispanic culture. Nicaragua remains the second- poorest nation in the hemisphere.One of the things the country suffers from is the constant trading products and managing budgeting. Some traditional export products are coffee, meat and sugar. Some nontraditional exports are vegetables, tobacco products and gold. [4]â€Å"Today Nicaragua’s economy is based on agricultural efforts, since the nation has very fertile land and a low density of population on the land. Export crops such as coffee, cotton, bananas, and sugar rose steadily from 1950 to 1975. † The country was severely damaged by civil war and at the same time it suffered natural disasters including earthquakes floods and hurricanes.Nicaragua has strong, folklore, music and religious tradition, which are organically from the European culture. The different cultures that Ni caraguans are creative, varied, happy and humorous cultures. Palo de Mayo is celebration to welcome the rain, production and new life. â€Å"There is no answer as to how it came to Nicaragua. † Some people believe that it originated from the Nicaraguan Creoles so they believe that it directly came from Jamaica. The music it is danced to is sensual with rhythm and as time went on things was added on to it. Palo de Mayo is a very huge part of the Nicaragua culture.Nicaragua's food is known as the finest in the Central America. They are famous for using fresh ingredients. Nicaragua shares the same flavors and ingredients with Mexican, Honduras and Guatemala food. Nicaraguans consume corn tortillas with most meals. Tortillas are larger and thin and are made of white corn. This is used as an edible utensil to wrap meat and beans. When most people cannot afford meat regularly they eat beans because beans have protes. A breakfast dish the most Nicaraguans eat is red beans, which are small red beans that are put into Gallo pinto.They are known as red rooster and it a mixture with red and red beans. Another meal the Nicaraguans enjoy is tamales. Tamales are and entire meal that has corn, rice, tomatoes, chili, potatoes, cassava root and sometimes has meat in them. They are wrapped in a leaf and are cooked. Popular fruits are mangos and plantains. [5]â€Å"Nicaraguans drink coffee with hot milk at breakfast or black with sugar. † A famous drink that is known in the nation is Pinol. Pinol is a nonalcoholic drink, which is made from corn flour and water. Food isn’t the only famous part in Nicaragua; music as well is really huge.Nicaragua’s music and dances are from the heritage and mixture if the different cultures that are around. Each region has its own traditions, and all Nicaraguans consider themselves to share on cultural identity. Some musical instruments that is famous is the marimba, in Nicaragua it is made with hardwood plates, which i s placed over bamboo or metal tubes of vary lengths. A sitting performer normally plays it while they are holding it with there knees. The marimba player is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, a guitar player. The music that Nicaraguans listen quite varies.They enjoy all types of music coming from Cuba to the Unties States and Dominican Republic. They listen to tons of music that are form different countries. The music in Nicaragua has a mixture of European and Spanish influence. Tourism in Nicaragua is known nation wide and has increased travelers to come visit Nicaragua. The growth in the tourism industry left a positive impact in agricultural, commercial and in finance industries. A famous spot that caught tourist attention is the colonial city of Granada, cities like San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe and Mombacho attract many tourists. 6]â€Å"In 2005, 803, 933 tourist visited Nicaragua and many of the tourist came from Europe and United States of America. † Tou rist attractions are volcanoes, sand skiing, doing activities such as hiking, climbing, camping and swimming. Nicaragua is referred as the lands of lakes and volcanoes. Tourism improves Nicaragua every year hotels are cheap and there are so many luxury places to visit. There is always something to do while you are visiting or vacationing in Nicaragua. Nicaraguans have the right for freedom of religion and the people are very fond of their belief of god.Roman Catholicism arrived in Nicaragua with the Spanish settlers in the sixteen century. Many Nicaraguans are Roman Catholic but many blacks believe and belong to the Protestant religion. Roman Catholics are people who attend mass, and receive the sacrament are mostly women, upper class and lower class people. Most Catholic churches are in rural communities and priests preach them. A priest leads mass and delivers the sacraments to church members. Blacks from the coast mostly belong to the Pentecostal. One of the largest Pentecostal c hurches in Nicaragua is the Moravian Church and Baptist Convention.Nicaragua’s education is known as being one of the poorest through out Latin America. Its education system has suffered severely. Elementary schools are free, but many children that live in rural areas are unable to attend due to the lack of school around their area and other reasons. [7]â€Å"Children under the age of seven and twelve get free schooling, but only seventy percent of the children attend school. † Communities that are located in the Caribbean coast have schools that teach them in their native language. Nicaragua’s society’s is largely uneducated; twenty percent of first graders only finished the sixth grade.Poverty affects children’s to go to school because most families are unable to afford to pay for their children to attend school. Secondary education institutions are private and too expensive for a vast amount of Nicaraguans. Only eight percent of the population e nrolls in universities, which are mostly upper class families. One of the first universities to be built was in the city of Leon and Managua. Children in Nicaragua wear school uniforms and pay a fee to the school that covers basic school materials. Mostly all schools lack with money to buy sport equipments, science/ computers technology and musical instruments.Students are taught basic subjects but aren’t able to really learn how to use computers or equipments of any kind. There are different times students are able to attend school which is either in the mornings, the afternoons or the evenings because many kids work to increase there family income. Teachers have no incentives, limited training and horrible working space. Teachers are paid very low salaries. Most of the teachers are single or abandoned mothers who work to provide a future for their children. Poverty is on of the biggest social problem in Nicaragua it has been for decades.In Managua poverty is so bad that som e of the urban people live and have house that are made from cardboard boxes with dirt on the floor. Some Nicaraguans do not have access to clean drinking or plumbing water. [8]â€Å"The government in Nicaragua is making progress in improving healthcare and education mostly for the poor and rural communities. † Almost seventy-five percent of families in Nicaragua live in poverty. Families of low- income are framers and land workers, one member per families work at farms. Most of Nicaragua’s rural poor live in vast dry central region, where natural resources are limited to plant.Rural people dependent of crops such as beans, vegetables etc, but at times droughts occur and it affects their food and income. The reason why the rural people are poor is because Hurricane Mitch causes an environmental disaster, and another reason is Nicaragua was in the civil war from 1980 to 1990 and because of that the economic crisis collapses. Nicaragua’s government is divided into three branches; there is the executive, legislative, and the judicial. The executive branch has the president, vice president and an appointed cabinet of ministers.Such as the Ministry of Education, Defense, Environment, Family, Foreign Affairs etc. The legislative branch has ninety- two members of the National Assembly, and it as well enforces the countries law. The judicial branch has the Supreme Court, which is located in Managua and other lower courts. The Supreme Court has twelve judges and has criminal, civil and constitutional matters divisions. The government is responsible to control the urban development, construction, and maintenance of roads, parks, and bridges including creating museums and libraries.In conclusion, Nicaragua is a country that is full of immersing history, culture, nature and tradition. Nicaragua is known as the second’s poorest country in the western Hemisphere. There are many areas that Nicaragua needs to improve like education, poverty and soc ial problem. Nicaragua’s culture is full of history and immersing tradition. 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Brooklyn, NY: Interlink, 1999. Print. â€Å"Why Nicaragua? † NICARAGUA Spanish Schools | VOLUNTEER Nicaragua | SPANISH STUDY ABROAD Nicaragua | LEARN SPANISH Granada NICARAGUA | Nicaragua EDUCATIONAL Spanish PROGRAMS | VOLUNTEER OPPORTUNITIES in Nicacaragua | NICARAGUAN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS. Web. 01 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"Youth and Education Issues in Nicaragua. † Foundation for Sustainable Development | Grassroots International Development | Intern, Volunteer, Donate. 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