Analysis Of Letter From Birmingham Jail - 1197 Words

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s â€Å"A Letter From Birmingham Jail,† depicts the fight for equality by African Americans during the civil rights movement. In this letter, King uses tone, rhetorical questions, and allusions to discuss the racial segregation sweeping the nation. King’s letter is a response to â€Å"A Call For Unity,† a condemning message written by eight white clergymen who frowned upon the peaceful protests conducted by many African Americans. Although Dr. King is presently seen as an American hero, during the civil rights movement he was simply seen as just another negro attempting to break the social norm. â€Å"A Letter From Birmingham Jail,† counters the arguments made by the clergymen in a very effective way by appealing to their†¦show more content†¦King makes this identification with Paul because he is also carrying a message beyond his hometown; however, instead of gospel, King is carrying a message of freedom. This ef fectively connects with the clergymen’s religious beliefs, creating a sense of affinity between the men. Through his use of rhetorical questions, King is able to deliver a logically sound argument, presenting the clergymen’s claim and advising specific answers to their questions. For example, when King says, â€Å"Where were they when Governor Wallace gave a clarion call for defiance and hatred? Where were their voices of support when bruised and weary Negro men and women decided to rise from the dark dungeons of complacency to the bright hills of creative protest?† (291). King aims his questions towards the clergymen who stated that â€Å"hatred and violence have no sanction in our religious and political traditions.† King denounces this quote by incorporating an allusion to Gov. Wallace, who holds a distinguished role of authority and leadership in Birmingham. King brings uses these rhetorical questions and this allusion into his argument because Gov. Wallace is known for his racist attitudes. King questionsShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis Of Letter From Birmin gham Jail1052 Words   |  5 Pagesdiscrimination is? A Rhetorical Analysis of Letter From Birmingham Jail It is known to all that Martin Luther King is a famous person in America, who strongly goes against the racial discrimination all the time. Here, in this letter, Letter from Birmingham Jail, it is easy for us to realize that racial discrimination appears and the non-violence action is still serious at that time. As a matter of fact, this letter is coming from the people in the Birmingham jail, stating their inner thoughts aboutRead MoreLetter From Birmingham Jail Analysis850 Words   |  4 Pagesfriends. (MLK)† This quote from the inspirational civil rights leader captures the motivation behind his â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† He wrote this letter in 1963--after he had been jailed--in response to southern white clergy who called his actions â€Å"unwise and untimely.† Although MLK utilizes many varying appeals and devices, Kairos and anaphora are the most forceful because they pressure the white clergy and stimulate guilt in them. MLK inserts kairos in his letter to pressure the white clergyRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Letter from Birmingham Jail1517 Words   |  7 PagesPonder Eng291-001 13 September 2013 Rhetorical Analysis Rhetorical Analysis of â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† by Martin Luther King, Jr., is a letter in which King is writing to his â€Å"fellow clergymen† in a response to their recent criticism of the actions he was leading in Birmingham at the time. The letter was written in April of 1963, a time when segregation was essentially at a peak in the south. Birmingham, in particular, is described by King as â€Å"probablyRead MoreAnalysis Of Letter From Birmingham Jail785 Words   |  4 PagesWhile imprisoned in Birmingham Jail, Martin Luther King Jr. received a letter from the local clergymen that condemned his actions calling them rash and extreme, in response Dr. King wrote his own letter back defending his decisions. In his letter from Birmingham Jail, Dr. King introduces the idea of positive extremism as he attempts to convince the clergymen of the need for direct action in Birmingham, by showing the similarities in his own struggles and those faced by countless historical and biblicalR ead MoreCritical Analysis: Letter from Birmingham Jail1191 Words   |  5 PagesCritical Analysis Essay â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† In arguing, writers use different techniques to effectively convey their message to their intended audience. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s Letter from Birmingham Jail was a response to A Call for Unity by eight white clergymen in which King’s presence in Birmingham and his methods of public demonstration were questioned. King’s letter was not only a response to his presence in Birmingham, but he also used the opportunity to address theRead MoreLetter from a Birmingham Jail Analysis1025 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"A Letter from Birmingham Jail† by Martin Luther King Jr. was written in the margins of a letter posted by the clergymen of Alabama at this time that sparked his interest and while he inhabited the jail cell for parading around without a permit. This time allowed him the ability to respond wholeheartedly to this cynical oppressing. King’s letter addresses specific points presented in the Clergymen’s and this direct response distinguishes Kingà ¢â‚¬â„¢s strong points through his powerful writing.   UnethicalRead MoreLetter From Birmingham Jail Analysis1617 Words   |  7 Pagespeaceful protests in Birmingham, Alabama, he was jailed on accounts of â€Å"parading without a permit† (King 3). While in jail, Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote a response to â€Å"A Call For Unity,† written by eight white clergymen of Birmingham, regarding King’s actions as â€Å"unwise and untimely† (King 1). This famous response soon came to be known as â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail,† and is currently regarded as one of the best pieces of rhetoric ever written. Dr. King’s â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail† is thoroughlyRead MoreAnalysis Of Letter From Birmingham Jail1058 Words   |  5 PagesLetters from Birmingham Jail, was Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s response to an open letter from eight Caucasian clergymen in the state of Alabama who had condemned the actions of King Jr. and blac k civil rights leaders. Dr. King Jr. made an impassioned argument addressing the concerns of the clergymen and vigorously discussed shock at their response. His letter covered a multitude of factors clearly and succinctly in a stinging critique of the clergymen’s views. In his infamous letter, Dr. King JrRead MoreSummary and Rhetorical Analysis of â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†1708 Words   |  7 PagesSummary and Rhetorical Analysis of â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested on April 12, 1963, in Birmingham, for protesting without a permit. The same day that King was arrested, a letter was written and signed by eight clergymen from Birmingham and titled â€Å"A Call for Unity†. The letter called for ending demonstrations and civil activities and indicated King as an â€Å"outsider†. On April 16, 1963, King responded to their letter with his own call, which has come toRead Moreâ€Å"Letters from a Birmingham Jail† Analysis of the Rhetorical Appeals1182 Words   |  5 Pagescreate a trustworthy bond with the audience, support his claim through reason, and create emotion in the audience that compels them to leap out of their seats and take action. Martin Luther King Jr. attempted to do this when he wrote an open letter while in his jail cell after a peaceful debate against segregation. His lettered response was guided at a statement by eight white Alabama clergymen saying that segregation should be fought in court and not on the streets. King uses a combination of three

shc 31 - 1185 Words

1.1 Identify the different reasons people communicate. There are 5 main reasons why we communicate these are: 1. To change behaviour 2. To get action 3. To ensure understanding 4. To persuade 5. To get and give information All these could be to share experiences, to make choices, to express wishes and choices†¦ 1.2 Explain how communication affects relationships in the work setting. Effective communication in the work place is essential to make sure that information is passed on, to make sure that the client’s needs and problems can be assessed properly, if there are any changes that effect the care then it needs to be passed on to the team at work, to build good relationships with your team members and clients. 2.2 Describe†¦show more content†¦If this happens then you should inform the individual involved as soon as possible. PWSC31 2.1 Compare ways to establish the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of an individual. You could ask the individual themselves this is the most effective way and it encourages the individual to take control. The disadvantages could be that the individual may lack in confidence or they may have communication difficulties. You could read the care plans which can give you information if the individual can’t communicate their needs the disadvantages are that the care plan may be out of date and need reviewing, it might not be accurate or may have been written with out much involvement from the individual. You could also talk to the family and friends they may have good information about the individuals the disadvantages are that they may communicate their own wishes and not know the wishes of the individual. 2.3 Describe a range of communication methods and styles to meet individual’s needs. Verbal communication is one by asking questions you can asked closed or open questions or just talking to the individual we can show empathy and understanding. Non verbal communication so this could be by writing or by picture cards or easy read documentation. 2.4 Explain why it isShow MoreRelatedShc 312949 Words   |  12 PagesPromote Communication in Health, Social care UNIT SHC 31 1. Identify the different reasons people communicate Communication can be in the way of telephone, written notes, email alerts, text messages and vocal People communicate for many reasons, but I guess the main reasons are to get what we want, to refuse things we don’t, to give information or to find information and importantly to interact socially. We communicate to show pain, to show our emotions and express our feelings. We canRead MoreShc 31-31066 Words   |  5 PagesSHC 31 1. Understand why effective communication is important in the work setting 1. Identify the different reasons people communicate People communicate for different reasons, to portray their feelings, emotions, pain, opinions, etc. The communication could be professional (formal), or personal (informal). It is important within a social work environment that information is recorded, as it may be called upon for legal reasons. All communications are confidential, and on a â€Å"need to know†, basisRead Moreshc 31 1.2 Essay1431 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Sch 31: Promote communication in health, social care or children’s and young people’s settings. 1.2 Explain how communication affects relationships in the work setting. Communication plays a massive part once building a relationship in the work setting. By regularly keeping effective communication between practioners, parents/careers and children makes a positive working environment. The relationships are mostly based on the type of communication between one another, communication is not justRead MoreChildren and Young People Shc 311838 Words   |  8 PagesLisa Okonkwo CACHE CYPWD Level 3 candidate pin:30196060 SHC 31: Promote communication in health, social care or children’s and young people’s settings 1. Identify the different reasons people communicate. People communicate for a number of different reasons including: †¢ To get to know each other †¢ To share information †¢ To provide someone else with information 2. Explain how communication affects relationships in the work setting. We communicate in a two differentRead MoreEssay about Shc 31 Answers2465 Words   |  10 PagesIdentify the different reasons people communicate ï€ ª To reflect their immediate requirements and meet their needs. ï€ ª To socialise with others. ï€ ª To build relationships and understanding of peoples thoughts. ï€ ª To improve communication skills, knowledge to learn and develop. ï€ ª To express their concerns, state of mind ï€ ª If they are happy or sad. Explain how communication affects relationships in the work setting You must be able to understand what the person requires, act on it fromRead MoreLevel 3 Diploma Shc 31 Communication2127 Words   |  9 Pagesmessage being conveyed and understood. †¢ People’s perceptions, values and ‘truths’ are based on emotion not fact so it can be irrelevant how good you actually are at your job if you do not ‘communicate’ effectively. ----------------------- UNIT No SHC 31Read MoreShc 31 Promote Communication in Health, Social Care or Children’s and Young People’s Settings.2756 Words   |  12 PagesSHC 31 1.1 Different reason why people communicate Personal life: †¢ Express felling †¢ Building and maintaining relationship †¢ Exchange info †¢ Offer support †¢ Feedback Settings children and young people: †¢ Building and maintaining relationship †¢ Offer support (transitions) †¢ Building confidentiality †¢ Meet child or young person need †¢ Gain knowledge †¢ Giving instruction children dunning activities †¢ Inform parents and staff †¢ Talk to children to encourage positive behaviour Read MoreMiss865 Words   |  4 PagesPlease ensure work is referenced correctly, reflect on your own practice with the children as much as possible in order to link knowledge and practice. Check spelling and grammar and ensure that professional language is used throughout. TASK ONE SHC 31 (4.1, 4.3) CYP 3.6 (3.3) CYP 3.3 (4.3, 3.3) SHC34 (2.1, 2.2, 2.3) (ERR – 2.4, 2.1) Explain the meaning of the term â€Å"confidentiality† Describe and analyse the potential tension between maintaining an individual’s confidentiality and disclosingRead MoreDifferent Backgrounds May Use And / Or Interpret Communication Methods1746 Words   |  7 PagesSHC 31 3.1 People from different backgrounds may use and/or interpret communication methods in different ways because every family has their own way of communicating together. For example: some children might hear or speak more than one language at home or they could hear others swearing. This can affect children’s communication and how they communicate as adults. People could live in the same country but still have a language barrier, this could be because they may be from a different region.Read MoreChild Care Level 311778 Words   |  48 Pages1 promote communication in health, social care or children and young people’s settings (ShC 31) Chapter 1 aC 1.1 1.2 What you need to know the different reasons people communicate how communication affects relationships in the work setting aC What you need to do 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 Demonstrate how to establish the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of individuals Describe the factors to consider when promoting effective communication Demonstrate

Sunday dinner free essay sample

Osso Bucco with sauteed garlic and spinach can bring a family together better than a Christmas morning. It goes like this: around four every Sunday my dad comes home with grocery bags filled with fresh produce and newly cut meat. Around six, the smell of sizzling olive oil and an array of different seasonings fill the entire house. By seven my sister and I are trapped in the kitchen mooching off my dad for samples. We fill up on the Italian baguette. At eight, it’s time to set the table: five placemats, four bowls of food, three utensils, two candles, and one cat waiting for her share of the meal. At eight-thirty, we feast. We’ve always been welcoming people, inviting different characters in our lives to join us in our weekly tradition. From long lost family members to new beaus, the mahogany table that sits in our dining room is used by all with rumbling stomachs. We will write a custom essay sample on Sunday dinner or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page My dad uses this dinner time to summarize our weeks by asking detailed questions about our daily lives, my mother talks about Andy Roddick’s serve while my brother is intrigued with the meal and my sister is playing on her Nintendo. I use this time for thoughts and bonding. To my right I have my sister’s nine year old friend, whose knowledge is limited to recess and Justin Bieber. To my left I have my mom’s best friend from high school, who ended up as an Avon sales representative. Instead of eating, she’s asking why our skin isn’t flawless. My grandma is at the table, and as she eats she’s showering her grandkids with compliments and â€Å"I love you† cards. I, on the other hand, have my best friend who made the unknown mistake of hanging with me on a Sunday night. I’ve learned to appreciate dinner. I’ve learned that even little sisters have problems and need advice from their older siblings. I’ve learned how hil arious my mom is as well as how my dad’s intimidating face is just an act. I’ve learned to stir the risotto clockwise, always. Never has being right where I am been so perfect. I don’t make plans on Sunday night; I have a standing subconscious commitment because when someone’s missing from the table, dinner isn’t complete. I like my chair, my plate, my glass, my reserved spot. I like seeing my parents smile at each other over a nice glass of Pinot Noir. I like having my brother and sister by my side to joke around with. I like good food. I like having a comforting, good, feeling with those that I love over some mashed potatoes. I like Sunday dinner and I’ll be eagerly waiting for my first Sunday back from college.

Special Educational Needs Comparative Models free essay sample

There have been a number of models of disability that have impacted and shaped attitudes about the term disability, which have then had an effect upon the intervention and support offered to young children with SEN. This essay will identify the different models of disability since and second world war and discuss how attitudes to disability might have affected the intervention and support offered. The medial model The first disability model that have been identified in the literature is the medical model, which was the main approach to understanding disability post second world war( Johnston, 1944). . The main components of the medial model focused on the individual childs difficulties as the problem ( Skidmore, 1996) and that they were identified through medical terminology only. Which echoed the mindset that the child needed fixing as they were faulty and that the childs disability was a tragedy, focusing on the pathology of difference (Clough and Corbett, 2000). We will write a custom essay sample on Special Educational Needs Comparative Models or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Society would often refer to the children who had disabilities as mis-fits within society(Barlett and Burton, 2007). As a result of this harsh medical recognition and identification of the children with disabilities they were institutionalised and placed within asylum as they were not seen to be capable of any input within the society. Furthering this, the negative outlook and segregation of a child who had a disability continued into schooling whereby many charities; often ran by the church, would be widely used to hide away the disabled child (Clough and Garner, 2003). It becomes apparent at this point that there is no surprise for the embarrassment and segregation of children who had disabilities within society, as the only identification of the child was based around negative language. Moreover, the industrial age was not creating an opportunity for a disabled child to fit in; as there was no societal exploration of adaption that was implemented in the main work force mind- set that see disabled children as beneficial to economy In 1944 the Butler Education Act was introduced within the schooling system which stated that all local educational authorities must give special educational provision (Barlett and Burton, 2007). However, what may seem like a positive outlook for children with disabilities and an attempt to change the attitudes that have been previously embedded in society it reinforced a more negative language surrounding childrens abilities and identified them within 11 categories of handicap; it is all based upon medical diagnosis. This could be seen to give society specific reason to label children who have a disability further and give even more reason to exclude them with the us and them impact. However, the 1960-1980s became the era of change for children who have disabilities whereby the child defect model became challenged and the 1970 Education Act symbolised a new attitude that all children are educable (Bartlett and Burton, 2007). The focus was about integration and moved away from the harsh identification of the medical model and the focus became on the education to fit all and deploying an enabling environment; creating the new model of disability known as the social model. The social model The social model of disability focuses on society attitudes and the environments that the child is within that create the barriers for inclusion and learning from happening ( Skidmore, 1996). The social model of disability has been know as the big idea (Hasler, 1993), which creates an illusion of great change in all area of disability and societies perception. Johnstone (2001) further states that it is the attitudes, values and beliefs operating in society that cause disability, not medical impairments, it is society that needs to be treated and cured. Within the social model of disability it is argued that disability only exists in so far as it is socially constructed ( Hutchinson, 1995). The main difference between the medical model and the social model is that it take disability away from the individual with the disability as the problem, and places the responsibility on society and a de-emphasis upon the individual. Hall (1995) studies indentified that the people with physical disabilities pointed out that they felt more disadvantaged by the attitude in society more than by heir loss of function. Hogan (2010) identifies a possible explanation for societies input into disadvantaging disabled people through the constant obsession that society has regarding the concepts of normality. This therefore, begs the question as to where society obsession with a child being normal comes from? A possible connection could be suggested that societies view of the concepts of normality derived from the historical perspective of disability as pr eviously stated. There has been some critism of the social model which has been identifies within Hutchinson (1995) studies that practitioners within the clinical profession have viewed that the social model as a denial of the truth about the persons ability. Brofenbrenner (1989) offers a possible extension of the latter, according to a process-person-context model that emphasises that the person at any given point within their life are joint function of the characteristic of the person and the environment that the person is within. Therefore, it the disabled child is within a social environment that is physically, emotionally and mentally challenging for them then they will be characterised by the barriers and to be seen as weaker person in comparison. The most influential component of this particular movement and vision for children who had disabilities was that of the Warnock report (1978). The report emphasised the importance of prioritising a childs educational need rather that their individual learning disability or impairment . Also, the previously harsh categorising of disability introduced by the 1944 Butler Education Act was replaced by a continuum of special needs and that the concept of SEN in the following areas of , behaviour, speech and language difficulties, learning difficulties should be introduced . The report further identified the need for a multi-disciplinary team to collectively input in the diagnosis of the children disability and educational need, rather that the pervious medical diagnosis. This became an important attitude shift for children with SEN regarding the support and provision that was providing to them, as it brought about the idea that all children are capable as long as they have the right support and intervention within the educational system. In response to the recommendations of the Warnock report (1978,) the 1981 Education Act produced the first legal document that focused more of integration and identification of the SEN through statementing (Barlett ad Burton, 2007). The key difference from the identification which was integrated within the education of a children who has SEN, was that it could be seen as a more positive outlook as it did not merely medically diagnosis the child ,it also assed the barriers that the environment created within the schooling environment. Another important aspect that the 1996 Education Act introduced is the definition of the term SEN, A child has special educational needs if he or she has a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him and her, a disability which prevents or hinders then from making use of education facilities (Education Act 1996) . However, even though this gave a definition and classification of the term SEN the requirement that meant that educational provision was given, was left up to interpretation of the teacher, school and Local educational authority. Which lead to a lot of anxieties that seem to be echoed about the Local authority funding inequalities and anomalies, (Alexander, 2010. Evans 2007) which seemed to be directly linked to inconsistencies of educational provision given and the interpretation of the greater need. Which therefore, creates a attitude in which society looks at SEN children as needy and measurable within this need, rather than just as children. Criticism of the Social model came from the principle that there was not enough political dimension and framework which gave relevance to the voices and discrimination of the disabled people. Therefore, further the dimension of the social model cam the Right- based model (Johnston, 2001) Rights based model The rights Based model of disability recognised the existence of structural discrimination against disable people within society. Both the social model and rights-based model generated the idea of inclusion of SEN children within the mainstream setting and society , moving away from the term segregation which the medical model was creating (Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Both of these strategies have been influence by the disability discrimination Act and the Human right Act (1998), which has lead to some criticism of inclusion and that it has only been developed due to basic human right policies, showing no direct evidence rationale (Arthur and Cremin, T. , 2010). This can be disputed through evidence-based reports conducted by OFSTED (2003) which highlights inclusion in mainstream schools having a adverse affect on pupils who have special educational needs (SEN). However, the conclusions based around this report suggests that there is a diverse response to levels of teaching, methods used and the lack knowledge and understanding that teachers have of groups of SEN pupils. Consequently, this has led to teachers lacking in confidence when teaching and relating to SEN pupils due to lack of clear guideline specific to groups of SEN children and the right support and provision that they need. In responds to the need for teachers to feel more confidence when given support and the right educational provision Removing barriers to Achievement (2004) outlined groups of SEN pupils which needed clearer guidelines and improvements to their educational provision which lead to the Inclusion Development Programme'(IDP (2009)). Many literature has suggested that there is a lot of inconsistency with educational policy and it has not been specific enough regarding educational provision ( Evans, 2007. Alexander, 2010)This therefore means that with clearer guideline specific to groups of SEN; which the IDP provides that this will create better consistent educational provision and support for individual children. Moreover, having better policy foundations will mean that the attitudes that surround teaching and including children with SEN will see a more positive attitude towards them. In addition to the reported negative attitude surrounding including SEN children, outlined the specific amount of time was associated by teachers when that having a child who has SEN , much in which related to the amount of paper work that was involved. This is something in which Alexander (2010) agreed with stating that .. much of what we currently di in SEN is driven by the need to attract and retain resources. The emphasis is on paperwork, on proving to others what the school has done for a particular child, and demonstrating that a child is still failing to make sufficient progress ( p. 34). This means that the school is not looking necessarily to educate the child to progress but to assess the child in terms of failure and not progressing, in order to get more funding or to be able to maintain the amount of founding that the individual child is receiving. A connection can be made by the educational policy and process of statementing the childs needs which is installing this negative attitudes towards including a child with SEN within the mainstream setting, due to the amount of paperwork that id entailed within inclusion, and the way in which inclusion is under resourced ( Alexander, 2010) and that the only way in which schools perceive to maintain or get funding would be to assess the SEN child in terms of what they cannot do. A Changing outlook The support and aspirations consultation green paper(2011) proposes and a case for change on working towards improvement within the educational process and provision provided for a children who have SEN. The main vision that the Green paper states is to give more control and empowerment to the children and their family in their input into effective practice with a holistic orientation. This particular vision can be seen to successfully integrate the two models: medical and social, but with of a focus of the social model. Furthering this, the main breakthrough that the paper proposed was that of the relevance of the child themselves in it vision of effective practice . For the first time within policies for inclusion the emphasised vision is on was of the child to have a voice and to importantly make education relevant towards the children and the additional needs that they may have to then gain the transferable skills to have an independent and a role within society itself in preparation for adulthood. This can be seen to be an important proposal as the child themselves is being valued and recognised as a person who is capable and seen as more of a able person that can make an input into their education and future. Which therefore, moves away from the attitude which was fixed into the medical model that the disability defines the child. In addition the green paper also makes OFSTED schools and their teachers accountable for re-assessing the current over identification of SEN for the benefit of performance tables. Instead to re-evaluate the assessment process and allows for more of a realistic view of lower attainment levels and the areas encompassed within this level to be seen for a child of lower ability to be making more progressed within this stage. This again, reflect elements of the social model with a focus on the current schooling environment and critea is disabling the child and that the vision is to break down the barriers to learning that pupil who are seen to e SEN currently face. This therefore, will in theory filter through to teachers and parents of all children of the changing vision for SEN pupils deployed into the mainstream environment. Which in turn, will help to change the current view of SEN pupils within society and impact upon the current young generation too carry an inclusion mindset into the future for change, which brings a more positive outlook for shaping attitudes. However, even though the green paper outlines a potential change for SEN pupils and there parents this is only a vision and it becomes apparent that this may not even make much of an impact within schools as Evans (2007)states that LEAs make decisions about assessment and provision in light of their own policies, budgets and local circumstances. Evans (2007) reports that one of the difficulties with provision made for special educational needs children is that the Local Educational Authorities for the different counties, is that they each have different perspectives on provision and treatment provided to the varying needs of the children. Moreover, each LEA has the same amount of funding given to themselves from the government but different areas have higher percentage of children with special educational needs than others and have to stretch the funding further. Which can mean that some children will not receive sufficient enough educational and personal provision needed. Evan (2007) also identifies a predicament with the current holistic process, that is that after the effects of a multi-disciplinary team of professions which comply the statement for a children who have special educational needs, the parents of the child can over-ride the decision made. Nutbrown and Clough (2006) states that one of the reason for parent wanting to over-rule the decision made for their children is through the idea that parents dont like to hear that their child may be different or display different behaviour than that of other children and that for this reason that parent should be kept out of meetings regarding their children, as they may not be able to see the affects being positive rather than negative. This therefore, means that despite the policies and legislations that are seen to reflect a more positive attitude found in the social model, there are still elements of a negative outlook that is shaping parents having a child who has SEN, which goes back to the medical model associated attitudes. This is something in which Evans (2007) considers, suggesting that the inconsistency of the vocabulary and descriptions found in legislations and policies regarding SEN means that this is automatically distinguishing SEN children to be different from other children; creating the us and them scenario. Consequently, this then means that as long as children who have SEN as seen as special and then others this will always be at the ful-front of parents thinking and perception of not identifying their children with additionally needs. Conclusion From my literature review is a definite movement towards a more positive attitude towards SEN children within society and schools, and the support and provision that is now been given to them. This has been mainly through the current policies and legislations that have legalised the extra support and provision in terms of funding that is giver towards school by the local educational Authority. However, it also becomes clear that the policies and legislations appear to look more positive in what they say and the language in which is used now within them, but it appears that this is also its down-fall in many ways. The first way is that whether there vision that has been places for SEN children can be realistically put into practise due to the vivid lack and inequalities given to the local educational authority, which is resulting in schools assessing the greater needs with SEN. The second is that even though policies have specially identified groups of SEN children and the support and provision that should be providing towards them, the amount of identification and paperwork that surround this process is creating a negative outlook and burden towards schools. And finally, the idea of identifying the SEN child as special and the language which promotes a lot of indifference between other children and SEN children is creating a us and them attitude for parents, teachers and the children themselves. In which is creating a negative outlook within society still and could be potentially stopping parents from wanting the education provision that their child needs in order to flourish within a mainstream setting. Reference Alexander, R. (eds). (2010) Children, their world, their education. Cambridge Primary Review. London: Routlege. 26-142 Clough, P. And Garner, G. (2003) Special Educational Needs and Inclusive Education: Origins and current issues. In S. Bartlett and Burton, D. (eds) Education Studies: Essential Issues. London : Sage Bartlett, S and Burton, D. (eds) Education Studies: Essential Issues. London: Sage Hall, D(1995) Commentary, Archieves of Disease in Childhood. P 91-99 Hasler, F. (1993). Developments in the disabled peoples movemen t. In Shakespeare, T. And Watson, N. (2001). The social model of disability: A outdated Idealogy. Research in Social Science and Disability.

Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors

Table of Contents Introduction Types of Environmental Forces Resources Disasters or calamities Climatic Changes Degradation of environment References Introduction Environmental forces are factors that affect the growth, operations and survival of a society within a given context. They include the political environment in a society, its cultural beliefs, government regulations, changes in technology, natural disasters and demography factors among others (Charles and Steg, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The purpose of this paper is to discuss the five major environmental factors that impact on social changes within a society. In order to understand how environmental factors influence the society it is necessary that we understand what the concept of social change entails. Social change refers to the alteration or change in the social order of a given society or group of people especially with regard to nature, relationships, behavioral patterns in the society and the social institutions that define them. Social change is also used to refer to progress achieved by the society through evolution and revolution that may have been undertaken by members of that society. Types of Environmental Forces From time to time, any society will always experience some changes that will bring about alterations of the community settings that influence the activities that the society is engaged and its performance in general. The following are environmental factors that bring about social change in a society or group of people. Resources The amount and type of resources available to a given society will play a significant role in promoting social change (Crompton Kasser, 2010). Examples of vital resources include water, land and minerals among others which are used in the production of goods and services. The availa bility of such resources will determine to a great extent the level of production and output the society has. If factors of production such as land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are readily available, the production capacity of a society will definitely be high which implies potential for a stable economy. In this regard, goods and services will be readily available for sale in the market and employment opportunities will be created where people have constant source of income which will improve the overall living standards of the people. This will therefore lead to a social change that is positive as the lifestyle of people in the society will improve. On the other hand, if there are limited resources in a society, there will be stiff competition for them as everyone will be competing for these limited resources thereby leading to potential outbreaks of conflicts among members of the society. This will possibly lead to depletion of the resources which could bring about more conflicts in the society. Therefore, as we have seen availability of resources in a community plays a significant role in determining whether the social change that takes place is positive or negative.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Disasters or calamities Natural calamities and disasters will influence to a great extent the nature of social change that occurs in a society. Hunger, earthquakes and civil war usually adversely affect a society in that it leads to displacements, migrations, change in lifestyle of the people and even loss life. During such cases, people are forced to adapt to new ways of life like constructing new homes, relocating to other places and coming up with new methods of sustenance in order to revert to the original way of life. In most cases, natural calamities usually bring about negative impacts and change in the society while in other cases, people ge t to reorganize themselves on a more solid foundation while they draw lessons from the calamity to better prepare for the future. In such a situation, the natural disasters will have promoted social change. A good example is seen when flooding takes place, in such cases some people have their homes swept away and as a result new and better homes are built elsewhere where flooding is unlikely to occur. In that case environmental forces have social change for the better. Climatic Changes In recent times, the climatic conditions have become quite unpredictable which has adversely affected farming activities globally. This is a serious concern given that farming as an economic activity especially in the developing countries forms the back-bone of the economy. Most often, such countries rely on agricultural exports as their source of income and therefore large proportion of citizens in such countries practice farming both on small scale and large scale. This implies that much of their in vestment centers on farming and in the event of unexpected weather patterns like short or excessive rains the entire produce might eventually fail. On the other hand, if the climatic patterns become predictable farmers will be able to invest more into farming without fear as they know that they will reap much. Some of the produce can then be used for domestic consumption while the surplus can be sold to generate income hence improving the living standards of the society. Degradation of environment Severe environmental degradation will lead to change in the lifestyle of people around it as it affects them negatively. Incidences of air pollution, land pollution and water pollution are most often seen to directly affect the health of the people leading to such diseases like breathing complications and water related diseases (Massicotte, 2009). This can at times trigger mass protests of the community members who might decide to demonstrate against such cases of environmental pollution. In conclusion therefore social change is seen to be caused by all of the above listed factors as well as others not discussed in this paper.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Charles, V Steg, L. (2007) Environmental Psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 63Â  (1): 1-19. Crompton, T Kasser, T. (2010). Social Aspects. Journal of Environment, 52 (4): 23- 33. Massicotte, M. (2009). Activism. Globalizations, 6 (4): 411-431. Reuveny, R. (2009). Environmental Degradation. Social Science Quarterly, 90 (3): 461-479. This essay on Social Change and the Role of Environmental Factors was written and submitted by user Analia Benton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Healthcare Law and Information Technology Essay Example

Healthcare Law and Information Technology Essay Example Healthcare Law and Information Technology Paper Healthcare Law and Information Technology Paper Tom Keefe, senior director of state government relations for the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society said that legislation in Massachusetts â€Å"will have a direct effect on mandating nationwide use of EHRs healthcare today is an industry characterized by revolutionary technological advances† (Rhea, S. 2008). Technological advances have been utilized by the healthcare industry for years in one way or another. One of the most widely recognized technological advancement in healthcare is the Electronic Health Record (EHR). Simply put, HER’s are â€Å"digital versions of patients’ paper charts† (â€Å"Learn EHR Basics,† n. d. ). Some of the information that can be contained in an EHR can include a patient’s medical history (including diagnoses, any test results, and medications), information from health clinics, pharmacies, emergency facilities and laboratories. The benefits of EHRs are to â€Å"Improve quality and convenience of patient care, increase patient participation in their care, improve accuracy of diagnoses and health outcomes, improve care coordination, and increase practice efficiencies and cost savings† (â€Å"Benefits of Electronic Health Records [EHRs],† n. d. ). Healthcare professionals and hospitals who utilize EHRs, whether that is through implementation or upgrades, are eligible to receive incentives from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n. d. ). This incentive is possible due to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. In order to be eligible for any incentives, healthcare professionals and hospitals must meet the definition of meaningful use. Meaningful use is defined as â€Å"using certified electronic health record (EHR) technology† (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n. d. ) in order to â€Å"improve quality, safety, efficiency, and reduce health disparities, engage patients and family, improve care coordination and population and public health, and maintain privacy and security of patient health information† (â€Å"EHR Incentives Certification,† n.  d. ). In other words, utilizing meaningful use would hopefully result in improved medical outcomes as a result of patients being more involved in their care and course of treatment and information being available to healthcare professionals where and when it is necessary. Healthcare professionals and healthcare organizations must also meet the National Patient Safety Goals (NPSG). In 2003 the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) developed six NPSGs with a seventh added in 2004. NPSGs were created with the hopes of delivering safe patient care (Harris Schmitt, 2004, pp.88). The seven NPSGs are â€Å"improve the accuracy of patient identification, improve the effectiveness of communication among caregivers, improve the safety of using high-alert medications, eliminate wrong-site, wrong-patient, wrong-procedure surgery, improve the safety of infusion pumps, improve the effectiveness of clinical alarm systems, and reduce the risk of healthcare-acquired infections† (Harris Schmitt, 2004, pp. 89). Ultimately, the seven NPSG’s, if implemented and followed, would result in safe, consistent patient care. In order to make sure that the NPSGs are followed correctly, they should become a part of initial training upon employment in the healthcare industry. Also, there should be a refresher training each year where healthcare professionals get together and review the NPSGs as well as try to find new ways to track the data and achieve each of the goals. In order to ensure a healthcare organization is meeting the requirements of both meaningful use and NPSGs, the organization needs to collect patient data and analyze the collected data in order to break negative patterns. One process that can be utilized to collect patient data is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR). One of the biggest benefits an EMR provides to healthcare professionals is the ability to track, identify, monitor and improve a specific practice or healthcare organization (â€Å"What is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR),† n. d. ). An EMR could track patient data over time, identify when a patient needs a screening or preventative visit, monitor where patients stand in regards to vaccines, and to ultimately improve the quality of care in a given practice (â€Å"What is an Electronic Medical Record (EMR),† n.d. ). Implementing the use of EMRs into a healthcare practice would get the ball rolling where technology in the healthcare field is concerned. Starting off small is a good way to allow the healthcare professionals, as well as the patients, to form the necessary trust in further technological advancements. If an EMR is already in place in a medical practice, mobile healthcare is another process that healthcare professionals can use to collect and analyze data. Mobile healthcare is also a great tool for healthcare professionals who have a variety of patients over a large geographical area or who are always on the move between their practice and hospitals. Also known as m-health, mobile healthcare is the application of mobile information technologies in the field of healthcare (Siau Shen, 2006, pp. 90). Siau and Shen state that â€Å"mobile technologies can be applied to healthcare in various ways such as voice communication, messaging, notification, asset tracking, and remote access† (Siau Shen, 2006, pp.90). Mobile technologies can reduce administrative costs, improve the response of healthcare professionals, as well as motivate healthcare consumers to become more involved in their treatment course (Siau Shen, 2006, pp. 90). Current technologies in existence make m-health possible. Three examples of these current technologies are Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), Global Positioning System (GPS), and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). Mobile technologies allow flexibility between healthcare providers and healthcare consumers. Patients and doctors, as well as administration professionals, benefit from mobile technologies. In the future, mobile technologies in healthcare organizations could save lives. Mobile technologies, including EMRs and EHRs, allow providers to collect patient data (including past patient history, demographic information, family history, allergies, test results, and lab results for example), track inventory, exchange data and communicate. Healthcare professionals can access a patient’s data and communicate with other healthcare organizations, pharmacies, healthcare professionals, and even the patient themselves. With the advancement of this technology, patient centered healthcare takes on a whole new meaning. The patients can have access to their files, be able to communicate with their healthcare professionals directly, and have access to online information about their diagnoses, medications, and course of treatment. As is always the case, the privacy and security of confidential information are a major concern and that concern heightens when thinking of mobile technologies. Without privacy and security, users of m-health would not be able to form the trust that is necessary when using mobile technologies. HIPPA Privacy and Security Rules â€Å"have detailed requirements regarding both privacy and security†¦the HIPPA Privacy Rules covers protected health information in any medium†¦the HIPPA Security Rules covers electronic protected health information† (â€Å"Privacy and Security,† n. d. ). Studies regarding privacy and security have been, and will continue to be, conducted. Plans regarding privacy and security have been created and implemented in order to help ensure the privacy and security of confidential information. With the topic of privacy and security met, we can now return to the National Patient Safety Goals and how they should be implemented, applied to the practice of healthcare, and tracked by healthcare professionals. National Patient Safety Goals should be utilized and met in every type of healthcare organization setting. Some examples of such a setting are hospitals, clinics, schools and universities, nursing homes, and mental health facilities. Every healthcare consumer deserves the very best care possible. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations recognized that, and as mentioned earlier, created the seven National Patient Safety Goals. Take the mental health facility in the form of a group home for example. Many of the consumers’ needs are met daily by direct care professionals. There is an in-house nursing department that takes care of medical needs that arise during the course of the day. The nursing department also handles scheduling many doctors’ appointments for the consumers’, helping to ensure their health. Aforementioned, there are seven National Patient Safety Goals, however, only a few will be focused on for the sake of tracking and analyzing data in certain types of care that would benefit a consumer in a group home setting. In terms of long term care, the National Patient Safety Goals that are focused on are making sure residents are correctly identified, make sure medications are used safely, preventing infection, preventing residents from falls, and preventing bed sores (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). In order to ensure that medications are safely used, a group home could put together a medical administration record (MAR) in which each resident residing in the group home would have their own sheets with each medication they take listed. On these sheets, staff is responsible for initialing each medication they provide to a resident. In order to meet state requirements, the staff also initial and sign the back of the medication sheets and at the end of each month, the MAR is sent to the nursing department to be reviewed before being returned to the group home to be filed. In addition to the MARs, another way to track when medications are not used safely is through incident reports, which are entered into a system that is run by the state. Both of these methods are great ways to make sure each resident is getting the correct medication at the right time on the right date and by the correct route. In a home care setting, the National Patient Safety Goals that are strived to be met are identifying patients correctly, safely using medicines, preventing infections, preventing falls, and identifying patient safety risks (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). In order to help protect residents from falls, it is important to know each resident and what they are capable of, especially when it comes to ambulating. For example, if a resident who lives in a group home has an unsteady gait, they should be monitored when on or around stairs. They should also not be left alone for too long. Ways to track this are by creating and implementing behavior plans as well as social and environmental plans. Their behavior throughout the day should be watched and documented. Any incidents of falls or injuries should be written on an incident report and reported to the proper people/organizations, given the category of the incident. In a behavioral health care setting, the National Patient Safety Goals that are focused on are correctly identifying residents, safely using medications, preventing infection, and identifying client safety risks (The Joint Commission Accreditation, 2013). Identifying clients correctly is one of the most important and widely used National Patient Safety Goal. It is something that you see happening in every healthcare organization that directly deals with patients. Normally, healthcare providers use two different forms of information to make sure they are working with the right consumer. Some examples of ways consumers can be identified are by name, birth date, patient number, primary care doctor, etc. As a healthcare professional, it is important that they make sure they are working with the right patients, so that there are no mistakes during the course of treatment. While this is not the easiest data to analyze or track, there are a few different ways it can be done. For example, if a resident goes to see their primary care physician, their picture could be taken at the office as a way of identifying the right resident. Facilities could also create and utilize a cover sheet with all the residents pertinent information including, but not limited to, their name, address, social security number, health insurance information, emergency contact, and diagnoses. It is imperative that as much data as possible be tracked. The more data that is collected and tracked, the better the analysis will be. When working with residents in the mental health field, many families are not involved and it is the job of the direct care professionals to advocate for the health and well-being of the residents they work with. Tracking this data can be done in the forms of behavior plans, behavior logs, social and environmental plans, incident reports, family history as well as past medical history and medications, both past and current, just to name a few. In order to ensure that all data is tracked properly, it is important to have a common template that is used agency wide. This will cut down on confusion. In the future, it is my hope that group homes will incorporate some sort of technology in order to better track and analyzing data on residents. If there was a common technology used agency wide, it would cut down on how much paper is used as well as constantly repeating information on many different forms. Also, it would be a great way for anyone involved with the care of a resident to quickly have access to the information they need. If this technology was linked up with the primary care physicians that serve this population, there would not be a need to carry around big files for each resident and there would be better communication between residents, staff and physicians, which would make for a more productive and higher quality visit and course of treatment.

American firm opening branch in Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

American firm opening branch in Japan - Essay Example During the Nara and Heian periods (710-1185) the emperors began to practice Buddhism, believing its teachings would protect the state. The Muromachi era (1333 to 1568) brought disintegration of the central government, firearms were introduced by the shipwrecked Portuguese soldiers, and Christianity was introduced by Francis Xavier. (Background, 2005, p. 3). Finally in the Edo period (1600-1868) Japan enters into an age of â€Å"peace and national isolation.† (Background, 2005, p.4). The United States wants to use the Japanese ports as supply bases for its commercial fleet, and, in a surprise move, Japan accepts the US demands and opens its doors for the first time in two centuries. In the Meiji period (1868-1912), the emperor was restored, and Japan made its transition to nation-state. The Showa period (1926-1989) brought many more changes for Japan, including World War II and its aftermath, including the necessary economic recovery. In 1941 Pearl Harbor brought the US into war in the Pacific and in August of 1945 â€Å"the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the second on Nagasaki; the emperor airs by radio a statement of unconditional surrender.† (Background, 2005, p. 5). The years of 1945-1952 brought allied occupation of Japan, with women gaining legal equality as well as the right to vote. Japan’s poli tical life was changed to a parliamentary state, and with the peace treaty signed in 1951, Japan regained independence. The â€Å"High Growth Age† in Japan occurred from the late 1950’s to the early 1970’s and Japan was rewarded with a booming economy. (Background, 2005, p. 5). Japan is made up of five islands; however there are some thirty-six hundred islands in the entire group, and dozens that are actually inhabited. Japan has twenty-nine thousand kilometers of coastline, and the total land area is 142,000 square miles which makes Japan one-twenty-fifth the size of the United States, or roughly the size of

To what extent was the CIA and the US Government involved in the 1973 Research Paper

To what extent was the CIA and the US Government involved in the 1973 Coup with Chile. Need sources from the American perspectiv - Research Paper Example A strategy was taken after the 4th September 1970 elections to prevent Allende from taking over office. The strategy involved the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) influencing a congressional run off vote as a constitutional requirement since Allende’s victory was not on absolute majority. According to Mirza (270), the intention of the operation was to make the Chileans aware of dangers of the Marxist regime which was to come with Allende’s reign. Allende was a member of the Socialist Party of Chile and he was the Popular Unity between the coalition of communists, socialists, radicals and the Christian democrats. A Marxist, Allende’s program was to nationalize most of the banks and private industries. He also programmed massive land expropriation as well as collectivization. His opposers included Radomiro Tomic of the Christian Democratic Party and Jorge Alessandri. Allende received 36% of the vote winning over Alessadri (34%) and Tomic (27%). Allende won the maj ority but had votes that were less than the popular vote which did not meet the requirements set out in the constitution. The controversy behind Allende’s victory was that he was against the United States’ national interest over Chile. In spite of pressure from the United States, supporters of Allende together with Christian democrats voted for Allende. ... The CIA took various actions, for instance, it made overtures to foreign governments against Salvador’s presidency. According to Hastedt (80), the CIA also circulated propaganda for local media placement which aimed at mobilizing support to raise public opposition against Allende. The CIA contacted a lay man who had connections with church leaders to influence them against Allende. Chilean military officers improved their connections with station officers. Eduardo Frei of the Christian Democratic Party was encouraged to use his influence and encourage officers to form a new government before Allende was elected by the congress as the president. Frei was reluctant to take this action. Between 5th and 20th October, 1970, the station mobilized more contacts with the key Chilean military officers convincing them to engage in a coup .An attachee of the US embassy’s army was put under CIA station as the operational controller. He also relayed vital information to the military . Four of the CIA officers in non-official cover were instructed to meet with the Chilean officers who participated in plotting the coup. This was the track 11 plan which involved a military coup although it failed. The truck one plan involved political action which was aimed at discouraging the congress from electing Allende as the president. Track two failed as a result of the assassination of the army commander, Schneider. He was a strong supporter of the constitution of Chile and a defender of a military coup against Allende. As noted by Schmitz (101), the CIA and the United States government had agreed that absence of Schneider would prove a better position to plan the coup. One of the coup plotters, Robert Viaux, who was a retired

Smoking in ads Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Smoking in ads - Essay Example THESIS STATEMENT The thesis intends to argue on the fact that most advertising is made towards raising the usage of various products and on the same time, warning the viewers regarding the destructive behavior of smoking that can have unfavorable impacts upon the societal well-being at large. DISADVANTAGES OF SMOKING One of the common themes that many anti-smoking advertisements are based on intends to showcase the disadvantages of smoking on the health of the consumer. As depicted in these advertisements, the possibility of the smokers to suffer from several diseases, which can even cause significant threat to their lives. It is quite obvious that smoking affects both the physical along with the mental state of the regular consumers causing threat to various diseases. Theoretically, smoking is regarded as the habit or the action of inhaling the smoke of a tobacco or a particular drug. It is worth mentioning that smoking affects the physical state of an individual through the formati on of numerous diseases like emphysema, lung cancer and respiratory or heart diseases. At certain times, most of these diseases result in causing death of the individuals due to excessive smoking. Based on the above discussion, it can be affirmed from a broader understanding that negative consequences are observed from excessive smoking. Apart from affecting the physical state of an individual, smoking also affects the mental state of the regular abusers as well. This can be justified with reference to the fact that the biological factors engaged in smoking eventually affect an individual’s mental state by a considerable extent. It can be affirmed in this regard that the regular doses of a substance i.e. nicotine present in cigarettes eventually leads toward extensive changes in the individual’ brain, resulting in affecting their mental state at large (Mental Health Foundation, â€Å"Smoking and Mental Health†). Thus, showcasing these disadvantages of smoking, a ffecting the physical along with the mental state of regular abusers, anti-smoking advertisements tend to generate significant impacts on societal awareness against such destructive behaviors. SECOND HAND SMOKERS Another theme addressed in anti-smoking advertisements emphasizes the negative consequences faced by second hand smokers. In general, it can be affirmed that unavoidable smoking effects pertain not only on the abusers but also upon the second hand smokers breathing in the same air and therefore, reside within the periphery to be directing affected by the tobacco smoke. With this similar concern, secondhand smoking affects the lives of the individuals in the form of deteriorating their mental along with physical health. Conceptually, the notion of secondhand smoke is typically observed as the mixture of smoke that results from the burning end of a particular cigarette and also the smoke, which is exhaled by the smokers. It is quite evident that secondhand smoking distresses the people around the abusers in the form of causing several health related problems, even lung cancer. These problems may be related to respiratory along with ear infections, severe attacks of asthma and lung cancer among others. It can be apparently observed in this similar concern that the inhalation of secondhand

Analysis of China as a Superpower

Analysis of China as a Superpower The Dragon Awakes – Will China be the next superpower? China is a sleeping dragon. When it awakes, the world will shake†. (Eccleston H, 2004, p290). Napoleon Bonaparte made this prophetic comment regarding China in 1808 and it would seem that today China has indeed awoken. (Optimize, 2004p. 1). China has had unprecedented economic growth at around 9.5% perineum, a statistic even more impressive amazing bearing in mind that only in 1978 China was poorer than Korea and Taiwan were in the 1960s. (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). China also shows signs of extending its economic reach and is expanding its ventures into developed states. Only recently the Chinese firm Nanjing bought the British ailing car firm MG rover for  £50 million. (BBC News 2006 p. 1). Also in 2005 the Chinese Lenovo Group acquired IBM’s PC business making Lenovo the third largest PC Company in the world. (Economic Times, 2005 p. 1) There is also a huge inflow of FDI (foreign direct investment) into China. China has established 22,245 new firms attracting $59.2 billion in FDI making a total of $33.4 billion in 2003. This makes China the top destination for FDI and a country that firms want to do business with. (People’s Daily, 2003). It is thought by some observers that China’s economy at its present rate could eventually overtake that of the US(United States). (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). If this is so, could China surpass the US in other areas and displace the US as the world superpower. There will be huge implication for international relations if this is to be the case. The writer’s hypothesis is that China’s rise to superpower status will mean a shift of economic, military and cultural power from the west tithe east. Drawing on the work of John Mearsheimer that states are power maximizes, China will continue to pursue power in a bid to become the most powerful state in the international system, a position currently occupied by the US. (Mearsheimer 2001 p. 21). Even those who advocate that the spread of liberalism will lessen the need for the pursuit of power have not been able to ignore this development. Fukuyama in his book â€Å"America at the Crossroads† says that social engineering like that seen in Iraq leads to unexpected consequences and undermines its own ends. Therefore actions which are put forward as promoting peace and democracy turn into something they were not intended to be, the promotion of the national interest of the US. (New York Times, 2006 p. 2). Therefore a state whose power is so big it is unchecked is unable to police itself and act benevolently in the anarchic system. Its main concern is the accumulation of power and it will not be satisfied as purported by Waltz’ defensive realist view, by only seeking to acquire as much power so as to feel secure. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 169-170). A world dominated by China A world dominated by China may be very different than the present world that has for the last two centuries been dominated by a western power. As already mentioned China’s rise will not result in it being status quo power and therefore it will not be happy to work within system determined by western values. (Guardian 2005 p. 2). China has different values to that of the west and its rise will lead to the promotion of those values through its economic, military and institutional power. Therefore as Huntingdon notes, the new fault-lines will not be between ideologies like the two World Wars and the Cold War but between civilizations. This is due to the different views that cultures have in regard to relationships such as the citizen and the state, husband and wife, liberty and equality. (Huntingdon 1993 p.25). The west has promoted its values of liberalism as being the universal values of the world community. But due to the anarchic structure of the system these values have been used to promote its national interest. China will appeal to those states who have different view of the world that the one being put forward by the US and other western states. These states will have similar cultural values to China which stress the subordination of individual rights and elevate consensus differ from the western beliefs of liberty, equality and individualism. (Huntingdon 1993 p. 29). Indeed China is forging links with states that the US deems as rogue states such as Iran with its recent gas deal worth $100 billion. The US has imposed economic sanctions on Iran and this gas deal is a clear sign that China does not intend to work within a system determined by the US. Further, Iran is looking to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which could act as a counterweight to US institutional power. (Asia Times 2004 p.1-2). The writer will look at China’s potential superpower status using the neo-realist theory and its conceptual and methodological framework. This will entail the use of secondary research methods by exploring the concepts of neo-realism through the scholars in this field. This theory rose to prominence during the late 1970s due to the writings of Kenneth Waltz. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 49). It rests on the earlier realist perspective of writers such as E H Carr and Hans Morgenthau, which was dominant in international relations in the post-World War II era. Realism also rose due to the inability of the liberal perspective and its principles to maintain peace in Europe. (Bur chill, 2001 p. 71). It was concerned with the causes of war and ways in which it can be prevented. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 48). EH Carr’s â€Å"The Twenty Years Crisis† was a critique of the liberal view that co-operation, under institutions such as the League of Nations, would render war obsolete. Carr’s theory was proven when World War I broke out the day after his book was published. (Bur chill 2001 p.71). Morgenthau’s work, Politics Amongst Nations (1948) sought to apply positivist methodology used in the natural sciences to international relations. Thus we can draw objective knowledge and laws from the social world in the same way that we can from the natural world. (Bur chill 2001 p. 77). He maintains that politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature and that human nature is reflected in the way states behave. The outcomes of the interaction of states are due to the behaviour of statesmen and thus human nature. (Bur chill 2001 p. 83). Morgenthau and Carr draw on a long philosophical heritage going back to the writings of Thucydides 460BCto 406BC and Niccole Machiavelli 1469 to 1527. The neo-realist perspective came about in response to the rise of liberal internationalism and their interdependency theory in the1970s. Neo-realism engages with this approach that deems the state tube less significant in an interdependent world due to the rise of institutions, regimes and transnational corporations. (Bailys Smith 2005 171). Realism recognised that it had to develop new tools to analyse these new developments. Thus realism reinvented itself sane-realism, acknowledging that such non-governmental actors exist, but they have to work within an anarchical international system where there is no overall authority above that of the sovereign state. This means states can never fully co-operate within these institutions due to the possibility that one state may gain more out of this co-operation. The anarchic structure of the system is where neo-realism departs from the earlier realist theory that human nature determines how states behave. Waltz’ systemic approach Waltz’ systemic approach is that it is the structure of the international system that determines the way states behave and not human nature. Despite this departure it can be said that there are core theoretical elements that underpin the earlier classical realism, modern realism of Carr and Morgenthau and Waltz’s structural realism. This is known as the realist triangle of state, survival and self-help. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The primary actor in the international system is the state. This can be traced back to Thucydides’ time when the unit of analysis waste city-state or polis. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). That said, Carr and Morgenthau were less state-centric in that they did not envisage the state as the final form of political community. (Burchill2001 p. 76). The state is the only legitimate representative of the people and it uses this legitimacy to wield its authority within and outside the state. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The second core element is that of survival. The priority of the state is to ensure its own survival in the anarchic structure of the international system. This concept is present in Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince† which details what leaders must do to keep hold of their power. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 174). The third concept is that of self-help that Waltz deems necessary to gain security in an anarchic structure. Hedley Bull’s â€Å"The Anarchical Society†(1977) concurs with Waltz that all states exist in an anarchical society where there is no higher authority than the sovereign state. Therefore national interest is the state’s first duty that ensures the right for citizens to feel secure within state borders. Self-help is necessary as this cannot been trusted to anyone else and this is achieved through the accumulation of power to reduce vulnerability in the anarchic system of states. The state’s first â€Å"law of motion† is to preserve the state and in order to do this it must pursue power. (Bailys Smith p. 162-3, 169). The writer has also been inspired by the academic Paul Kennedy (1989)in his book: â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. The writer will use this thesis to assess whether China is rising at the expense of the decline of the US. According to Kennedy’s thesis the rise and fall of power is cyclical thus once a great power has arisen it must inevitably fall. A state that has achieved economic strength will protect that strength using military power but this involves great cost. Eventually the cost will be too great and the power will decline and be replaced as evidence by the decline of Britain in 1873. (Nye 1990 p. 3) The United States has undoubtedly been the great power of the 20thCentury. Will it remain so during the 21st century or will it fall and be replaced by China thus confirming Kennedy’s thesis that all great powers will eventually follow this decline thus paving the way for the next great power? There are those who believe the era of the superpower is coming to amend. Fukuyama believes that states will not need to rival each other for power. The spread of liberal democracy and its sidekick liberal economy has â€Å"triumphed† over other regimes. (Fukuyama 1992). It is further believed that open economies create interdependency and sharing of common interests. (Nye 1997-98 p. 76). Also, the state is in relative decline due to the emergence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and (World Bank) and also MNCs (multinational corporations. (Bailys Smith 164). Even in the US Congress the former House of Representatives speaker Newt Gingrich does not regard China’s growth as in any way a threat whilst there are those who have views to the contrary. This highlights how the theoretical debate translates into apolitical one. There are those who view the universalism of western liberalism as unchallengeable and now the norm. This view may be borne out by the fragmentation of the Soviet Union but Matthew Rees views China’s position as similar to that of the Soviet Union in that it threatens western values of liberty and democracy. (Nye 1997-98 p.65-66) . Mearsheimer has also warned of complacency against the Chinese threat, stating of the current good relation between the two states: â€Å"this US policy (of containment) is misguided. A wealthy China would not be a status quo power, but an aggressive state, determined to achieve regional hegemony† (Mearsheimer 2001) Another writer in this field Joseph Nye refutes the claim that the state is in relative decline. His thesis is that the classic realist view of states as the most important actors cannot be disputed due merely to the rise of NGOs. This is because it underestimates the nature of the system of states that is anarchic in structure. Therefore if there is no higher authority to settle disputes the state cannot leave its survival to others. It must ensure its own survival and the only way this can be done is for the state to increase its power capabilities. (Bailys Smith 164). Thus in regard to on-state actors it is â€Å"business as usual† in that non-state actors must still work within a system of states. Thus states will still vie for power within these organisations. (Bailys Smith p. 173). This is the soft power element of the state. Definition of power â€Å"Man’s control over the minds and actions of other men†. (Morgenthau (1948) cited in Bailys Smith p. 173) Power is a highly contested concept because it is difficult to assess what elements actually constitute power. The traditional view of powers the possession of resources that include the size of population and territory, military might and economic strength. (Nye 1990 p. 26). Thus the resources of each state can be measured and compared. But measurement is not enough as evidenced during World War Two when France and Britain had more tanks that Germany but still Germany was able to outmanoeuvre the allies. Therefore when assessing power we also need to assess a state’s ability to convert its resources into such power assume states can do this more effectively than others. (Nye 1990 p.27). These avenues to power will be explored and the evidence that China has these capabilities will be extrapolated. The basis for power does not remain unchanged and must be assessed in its own context. For example the basis for power in 18th Century Europe was its population as it provided soldiers and tax resources. Today it is much more difficult to pinpoint the resources that provide the basis for power. (Nye 1990 p. 27) It is therefore not sufficient to look at the concept of power merely in terms of hard power or tangible resources. As Nye has noted in the post-cold war era there has been a shift in the balance of power in the anarchic system. The bipolar world has shifted to one that is unipolar with the US as the sole superpower. The US has exhibited all the usual traits associated with this position such as military, economic and territorial strength. But advances in technology and the emergence of NGOs and MNCs have meant a closer more interdependent world. Interdependence between states does not mean co-operation as liberals purport. It can be used to further national interest and this type of influence is the intangible soft power element of state apparatus. (Nye 1990 p.30). We can see soft power in action through the Washington consensus where the US is the leader in these institutions. We can also see soft power through the spread of the US’s liberal ideology in terms of economics and politics in what Fukuyama has called the â€Å"Triumph of Liberal Democracy†. (Fukuyama, 1992). This soft power has served to reinforce the US’s hard power resources by gaining it consent and legitimacy as the dominant power. (Nye 1990 p. 33). The universalism of American culture has also helped to further the power of the US by enabling it to establish values and beliefs that are consistent with its own society. Therefore the thesis of this dissertation is that China will be the next superpower by maximizing it’s hard power resources to secure itself in the anarchic system of states. Also, due to interdependence among states and the growth forgoes and MNCs it will seek soft power in its pursuit of power capabilities. The consequences of this systemic shift will mean the promotion of Eastern collective values over Western liberal individualistic tendencies. Part One: Hard Power Resources The Economy: If, as Kennedy suggests, China’s rise will be at the expense of the US, then at present most US concerns are directed at rapidly growing Chinese economy. There are certainly some impressive claims being made about the rise of Chinese economic power. Jeremy Warner writes that â€Å"like it or not, from China’s impact on finite world resources to climate change and the laws of supply and demand, it is transforming the way we live with a speed barely imaginable just a few years ago(The Independent January 27, 2006). Over the last 27 years, China has grown at an average rate of 9.6 present per annum, reaching a GDP of  £2.2 trillion in 2005 (The Independent January 27, 2006). In 1979, China represented 1 per cent of the world economy, with foreign trade totalling $20.6 billion. Today China accounts for 4 per cent of the world economy, with $851 billion in foreign trade, the third largest in the world (Fijian 2005, p19).There is of course still a lot of progress to be made – China’s economy for example is still only one seventh the size of that of the US(Fijian 2005, p19) but it is the rate of growth, along with plans for future expansion, the country’s high savings ratio, and plans to expand supplies of nuclear , clean coal, hydro-electric and renewable forms of energy that lead US experts to believe that one day China will challenge the US as the world’s dominant superpower. Larry Summers, former US Treasury Secretary has compared the integration of China into the w orld economy as one of the three great economic events of the last millennium – on a par with the renaissance and the industrial revolution (The Independent, July 23, 2005). The US has had similar fears about economic competition in the past. In the early 1980s it had concerns about the economic successes being enjoyed by Germany and Japan – fears that were allayed after stagnation in both countries. With China however, US fears appear to be deeper-rooted, primarily at the incredible rate of progress seen in China. Whilst the US economy may still be much larger at present, the rate of growth in China will continue to narrow the gap quickly. And of course, there is an ideological issue at the heart of the US fears about China– how is a Communist country succeeding where others have stumbled? The answer lies partly in America’s own attempts to take advantage of the economic conditions in China when Deng Xiaoping began to open up China to the rest of the world. China had historically been an insular nation, separated from the rest of the world and failing to make the most of its earlier technological advances. Deng understood that whilst China had a huge labour force, to succeed it needed to be organised, competitive in international markets and producing the type of goods that the rest of the world wanted to buy. For this to happen, China would need help from the outside world. The result has been huge foreign investments as companies from across the world have attempted to take advantage of China’s low labour costs. As Stephen King concludes, foreign investors have turned China into the world’s biggest assembly plant: â€Å"China may be a one-party state, but the authorities know all about Adam Smith and the division of labour† (The Independent, February 13, 2006). China is gradually picking off the economies of other G7 nations. Whilst its economy is still considerably smaller than Americas, by the end of 2004 it was bigger economically than France, Italy and Canada(The Independent, February 13, 2006). Germany and Japan are likely tube overtaken soon and then China will have the US firmly in its sights. It will have the opportunity to challenge US regional and global hegemony. Whilst there is an optimistic view that the economic growth in China will lead to long-term mutually beneficial cooperation with the US, more likely outcome is growing tension between the two. As China continues to grow, it will gradually begin to demand more of the world’s scarce resources – oil prices for example are already high and may be pushed higher by Chinese demand. The same will happen with other commodities with the result that China’s success increases the commodity bill for US consumers and increases global competition for raw materials. The US consumer may also put pressure on the government to curb Chinese economic expansion. With petrol being so lightly taxed in the US, motorists are affected directly by oil price rises. As The Economist reports: â€Å"they want somebody to blame and they may have heard that China is scouring the world to lock op oil supplies for its own ‘energy security’† (The Economist, September 3, 2005). Both the US and China have some common economic interests. Both benefit from free trade for example. However, with China now exporting six times as much to the US as it imports from it (The Economist, September3, 2005)., it is now China that has the most to gain, something of an irony after years of America hammering on its door to access Chinese markets. There have also been concerns in the US that China is trying to but its way into strategic assets within the US. In June 2005,CNOOC, a Chinese state controlled company attempted to buy Unocal, medium sized US oil company. Hawks within the US administration argued against allowing oil firms to fall into Chinese hands and, with public opinion in the US against the deal, it eventually fell through. The Chinese view on globalisation has been mixed. There is a view that globalisation gives a stronger reason for economic cooperation between economically strong states and certainly the acceptance of global brands into Chinese culture supports the argument that it has embraced globalisation. On the other hand, globalisation tends to reinforce US and Western interests first and foremost and the 1997-99 Asian financial crisis has convinced many within China that it could expose Chinese economic vulnerability. As Foot concludes: â€Å"with America’s advantage in technological innovation, revolution in military affairs and cultural domination, globalisation seemed to confer gains on Washington and thus further to reinforce the unipolar structure† (Foot2006 p82). Military Power To assess China’s rise to Superpower status we need to look at how it ranks in regard to military strength and capability. (Waltz 1979 p.131). The Neo-Realist view is that the nation-state is the most natural form of society and it should be defended for the national good. (Kennedy p. 90). Armies are essential for controlling land and bringing security to the nation state and which is the main objective in a world of states in a system of anarchy. (Mearsheimer p. 86). Due to competition for resources in a world of anarchy military powers a crucial instrument of the national interest. (Garnett, 1987 p.71). Thus military power is monopolised by states and used to protect states from external force. It is the capacity to kill, coerce or destroy and plays a significant part in international politics that will not be supplanted until the system of states is transformed. (Garnett 1987, p. 69-71). Those who have the most military strength are usually the most influential and the most respected in the system and certainly a proposition shared by Mao Ste-Tung’s saying that â€Å"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun†. (Garnett 1987, p.74). Recent analyses of the Chinese military threat from Washington have expressed growing concern. The 2005 Pentagon report concluded that China could threaten not just its smaller regional neighbours like Taiwan but eventually â€Å"modern militaries operating in the region.† This can be taken to include the US. (Washington Post July 23, 2005). Yee and Storey suggest that there are a number of contributing factors to the belief that China is gradually attempting to extend its influence in the region – 1)its territorial disputes with other countries in the region have intensified, 2) its rapid economic development has accelerated its military modernisation process and 3)China has elevated re-unification with Taiwan as a higher priority following the successful retrocession of Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in1999(Yee and Storey, p4). These factors can be interpreted as evidence of strategic expansion in the region, with territorial claims on the islets in the South China Sea being seen in particular by China’s neighbours as a sign of a policy of expansion. The hard-line policy on Taiwan and the refusal to abandon the threat of military force against it is also seen as evidence of an aggressive state. As Harry Harding writes: â€Å"the rest of the world has viewed the prospect of a Greater China with both fascination and alarm. Some see it in benign terms, as a dynamic common market that provides growing opportunities for trade and investment. More frequently, however, there has been concern that the combination of economic and military resources available to China will pose a significant threat to the commercial vitality and the strategic stability of the rest of the region† (Yee and Storey p4). There is certainly evidence that China is building up its military capability to the point where it could at least challenge the US in the region. Whilst Kennedy had written in 1989 that China’s army is strong numerically but â€Å"woefully under equipped in modern instruments of war†(Kennedy 1989, p577), more recently China has bolstered its naval, submarine and cruise missile capabilities, is in the process of purchasing advanced aircraft systems and is building a nuclear missile arsenal that is capable of striking virtually all of the United States(Washington Post, July 23, 2005). Whilst much has been made of Chinese reforms since 1979 since in terms of economic growth, it is important to realise that there have been great efforts made to reorganise the military from the early 1980sonwards. Plans were put in place to reduce the People’s Liberation Army from 4.2 million to 3 million (Kennedy 1989, p579) and develop a much more professional force with a higher quality of personnel. In 2000, the total estimated strength of the Chinese military was 2.5million, of which an estimated 1.8 million are ground forces. The overall strategy for the PLA is an overall reduction and reorganisation of both equipment and personnel with a view to creating a more modern and mobile army. In terms of equipment, China falls a long way behind the US military but is looking to modernise. It has a tank inventory of around10,000,many of which are Soviet or Chinese built. Its air force possesses around 4,350 aircraft, the majority of which are combat aircraft. The government is also looking to develop a local aerospace industry that would have the capability to produce technologically advanced aircraft, whilst continuing to import aircraft from Russia. The government also has plans to buy a number of AWAC aircraft from Israel. More recently there have been statements from Chinese military strategists that indicate that China is gearing up to use its military hard power resources. Taiwan will be the most likely arena for the flexing of Chinese military power. General Wen Zinger , political commissar of the Academy of Military Science has stated that the Taiwan problem â€Å"is of far reaching significance to breaking international forces blockade against China’s rise†¦ to rise suddenly, China must pass through oceans and go out of the oceans in its future development(Washington Post July 23, 2005). For proponents of the Chinese threat, such statements support the realist view that China is seeking to increase then demonstrate its power in the international arena. Just as Morgenthau argues that the pursuit of power in world politics is both natural and justified, surrealists will argue that China will become unsatisfied with the existing global power structure and adopt a policy of imperial expansionism aimed at attaining both regional and global hegemony (Yeaned Storey 2002, p7). Whilst China also has the option of economic and cultural means to accomplish its strategic objectives, military force remains the most traditional form of imperialism, and the most likely course for China to take once its economy is fully developed. Joseph Nye observes that the ‘rise’ of China is actually a misnomer and that a more accurate term would be the re-emergence of China. Certainly, China has long been a major power in East Asia, and technologically and economically it was the world’s leader (though without global reach) from 500 to 1500, before being overtaken by Europe and America. Indeed, China’s re-emergence would equate with Kennedy’s argument that power across the globe is cyclical. China already has some issues with the US and the other great powers over foreign policies. As a member of the UN Security Council it has traditionally opposed the views of Western states on the international arena and is continuing to do so in spite of its closer economic ties with the West. Whilst China may accept that at the present time it must operate in a US-dominated unipolar world, it believes that its future should at least lie in a multipolar world encompassing the US, China, Europe, Russia and Japan (Foot, 2006, p81). Certainly during the 1990sthere was Chinese unease at the continued American dominance in global affairs with issues such as further NATO expansion eastward, the renegotiation of terms of the US-Japan alliance, US defence missile systems and intervention in Kosovo being of particular concern. China’s population can be both a hard power resource and a burden. Its current population of 1.3 billion is expected to continue to rise until2030 when it will peak at 1.5 billion before going into decline. Population of such a size is of course a huge resource in terms of manpower, yet a huge burden on the domestic economy and from a domestic security point of view and massive number of people over which to maintain effective control. Western states continue to lobby the Chinese government for greater democratisation, yet the fear of anarchy from a more liberalised system would appear to be keeping the leadership committed to an authoritarian regime. From a realist perspective, it is the combination of economic and military power of China that will ultimately lead to conflict with thus. The build-up of such hard resources will be seen as a threat by thus regardless of any ‘good neighbour’ policies that Chinese diplomats may point to. Realists within the US policy making sphere will argue that China is merely biding its time until its economy is strong enough to provide a basis for future hegemony. Thucydides argument that the belief in the inevitability of conflict can be the cause of war is appropriate here – if both sides believe they will eventually end up in conflict, the military build-up will continue, economic cooperation will fade away, and conflict will become unavoidable. China will eventually have to seek further power in order. Certainly, as the Chinese economy continues to grow, it is likely that its military power will increase. For example, early in 2005, it announced a 12.6 per cent increase in defence spending (Nye, Daily Times March 27, 2005), something that makes it appear more dangerous touts neighbours and further complicating US military commitments in Asia. A RAND study has projected that China’s military expenditure will be more than six times higher than Japans by 2015 and accumulated military capital stock at around five times higher (Daily Times, March27, 2005), again something that suggests it is looking to achieve regional hegemony before aiming its sights higher and looking for global hegemony. Whilst a global military challenge to the US in the short term is unlikely, there is certainly a possibility that China could challenge the US in East Asia, or even more probably over Taiwan. China would almost certainly intervene militarily if Taiwan were ever to declare independence, irrespective of the military or economic cost. No Chinese leader can afford to be seen as the one that lost Taiwan permanently and at present, the West’s main concern about the Chinese military rests ar Analysis of China as a Superpower Analysis of China as a Superpower The Dragon Awakes – Will China be the next superpower? China is a sleeping dragon. When it awakes, the world will shake†. (Eccleston H, 2004, p290). Napoleon Bonaparte made this prophetic comment regarding China in 1808 and it would seem that today China has indeed awoken. (Optimize, 2004p. 1). China has had unprecedented economic growth at around 9.5% perineum, a statistic even more impressive amazing bearing in mind that only in 1978 China was poorer than Korea and Taiwan were in the 1960s. (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). China also shows signs of extending its economic reach and is expanding its ventures into developed states. Only recently the Chinese firm Nanjing bought the British ailing car firm MG rover for  £50 million. (BBC News 2006 p. 1). Also in 2005 the Chinese Lenovo Group acquired IBM’s PC business making Lenovo the third largest PC Company in the world. (Economic Times, 2005 p. 1) There is also a huge inflow of FDI (foreign direct investment) into China. China has established 22,245 new firms attracting $59.2 billion in FDI making a total of $33.4 billion in 2003. This makes China the top destination for FDI and a country that firms want to do business with. (People’s Daily, 2003). It is thought by some observers that China’s economy at its present rate could eventually overtake that of the US(United States). (Nye 1997-98 p. 67). If this is so, could China surpass the US in other areas and displace the US as the world superpower. There will be huge implication for international relations if this is to be the case. The writer’s hypothesis is that China’s rise to superpower status will mean a shift of economic, military and cultural power from the west tithe east. Drawing on the work of John Mearsheimer that states are power maximizes, China will continue to pursue power in a bid to become the most powerful state in the international system, a position currently occupied by the US. (Mearsheimer 2001 p. 21). Even those who advocate that the spread of liberalism will lessen the need for the pursuit of power have not been able to ignore this development. Fukuyama in his book â€Å"America at the Crossroads† says that social engineering like that seen in Iraq leads to unexpected consequences and undermines its own ends. Therefore actions which are put forward as promoting peace and democracy turn into something they were not intended to be, the promotion of the national interest of the US. (New York Times, 2006 p. 2). Therefore a state whose power is so big it is unchecked is unable to police itself and act benevolently in the anarchic system. Its main concern is the accumulation of power and it will not be satisfied as purported by Waltz’ defensive realist view, by only seeking to acquire as much power so as to feel secure. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 169-170). A world dominated by China A world dominated by China may be very different than the present world that has for the last two centuries been dominated by a western power. As already mentioned China’s rise will not result in it being status quo power and therefore it will not be happy to work within system determined by western values. (Guardian 2005 p. 2). China has different values to that of the west and its rise will lead to the promotion of those values through its economic, military and institutional power. Therefore as Huntingdon notes, the new fault-lines will not be between ideologies like the two World Wars and the Cold War but between civilizations. This is due to the different views that cultures have in regard to relationships such as the citizen and the state, husband and wife, liberty and equality. (Huntingdon 1993 p.25). The west has promoted its values of liberalism as being the universal values of the world community. But due to the anarchic structure of the system these values have been used to promote its national interest. China will appeal to those states who have different view of the world that the one being put forward by the US and other western states. These states will have similar cultural values to China which stress the subordination of individual rights and elevate consensus differ from the western beliefs of liberty, equality and individualism. (Huntingdon 1993 p. 29). Indeed China is forging links with states that the US deems as rogue states such as Iran with its recent gas deal worth $100 billion. The US has imposed economic sanctions on Iran and this gas deal is a clear sign that China does not intend to work within a system determined by the US. Further, Iran is looking to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) which could act as a counterweight to US institutional power. (Asia Times 2004 p.1-2). The writer will look at China’s potential superpower status using the neo-realist theory and its conceptual and methodological framework. This will entail the use of secondary research methods by exploring the concepts of neo-realism through the scholars in this field. This theory rose to prominence during the late 1970s due to the writings of Kenneth Waltz. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 49). It rests on the earlier realist perspective of writers such as E H Carr and Hans Morgenthau, which was dominant in international relations in the post-World War II era. Realism also rose due to the inability of the liberal perspective and its principles to maintain peace in Europe. (Bur chill, 2001 p. 71). It was concerned with the causes of war and ways in which it can be prevented. (Buzau in Zale ski 2002 p. 48). EH Carr’s â€Å"The Twenty Years Crisis† was a critique of the liberal view that co-operation, under institutions such as the League of Nations, would render war obsolete. Carr’s theory was proven when World War I broke out the day after his book was published. (Bur chill 2001 p.71). Morgenthau’s work, Politics Amongst Nations (1948) sought to apply positivist methodology used in the natural sciences to international relations. Thus we can draw objective knowledge and laws from the social world in the same way that we can from the natural world. (Bur chill 2001 p. 77). He maintains that politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature and that human nature is reflected in the way states behave. The outcomes of the interaction of states are due to the behaviour of statesmen and thus human nature. (Bur chill 2001 p. 83). Morgenthau and Carr draw on a long philosophical heritage going back to the writings of Thucydides 460BCto 406BC and Niccole Machiavelli 1469 to 1527. The neo-realist perspective came about in response to the rise of liberal internationalism and their interdependency theory in the1970s. Neo-realism engages with this approach that deems the state tube less significant in an interdependent world due to the rise of institutions, regimes and transnational corporations. (Bailys Smith 2005 171). Realism recognised that it had to develop new tools to analyse these new developments. Thus realism reinvented itself sane-realism, acknowledging that such non-governmental actors exist, but they have to work within an anarchical international system where there is no overall authority above that of the sovereign state. This means states can never fully co-operate within these institutions due to the possibility that one state may gain more out of this co-operation. The anarchic structure of the system is where neo-realism departs from the earlier realist theory that human nature determines how states behave. Waltz’ systemic approach Waltz’ systemic approach is that it is the structure of the international system that determines the way states behave and not human nature. Despite this departure it can be said that there are core theoretical elements that underpin the earlier classical realism, modern realism of Carr and Morgenthau and Waltz’s structural realism. This is known as the realist triangle of state, survival and self-help. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The primary actor in the international system is the state. This can be traced back to Thucydides’ time when the unit of analysis waste city-state or polis. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). That said, Carr and Morgenthau were less state-centric in that they did not envisage the state as the final form of political community. (Burchill2001 p. 76). The state is the only legitimate representative of the people and it uses this legitimacy to wield its authority within and outside the state. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 163). The second core element is that of survival. The priority of the state is to ensure its own survival in the anarchic structure of the international system. This concept is present in Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince† which details what leaders must do to keep hold of their power. (Bailys Smith 2005 p. 174). The third concept is that of self-help that Waltz deems necessary to gain security in an anarchic structure. Hedley Bull’s â€Å"The Anarchical Society†(1977) concurs with Waltz that all states exist in an anarchical society where there is no higher authority than the sovereign state. Therefore national interest is the state’s first duty that ensures the right for citizens to feel secure within state borders. Self-help is necessary as this cannot been trusted to anyone else and this is achieved through the accumulation of power to reduce vulnerability in the anarchic system of states. The state’s first â€Å"law of motion† is to preserve the state and in order to do this it must pursue power. (Bailys Smith p. 162-3, 169). The writer has also been inspired by the academic Paul Kennedy (1989)in his book: â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. The writer will use this thesis to assess whether China is rising at the expense of the decline of the US. According to Kennedy’s thesis the rise and fall of power is cyclical thus once a great power has arisen it must inevitably fall. A state that has achieved economic strength will protect that strength using military power but this involves great cost. Eventually the cost will be too great and the power will decline and be replaced as evidence by the decline of Britain in 1873. (Nye 1990 p. 3) The United States has undoubtedly been the great power of the 20thCentury. Will it remain so during the 21st century or will it fall and be replaced by China thus confirming Kennedy’s thesis that all great powers will eventually follow this decline thus paving the way for the next great power? There are those who believe the era of the superpower is coming to amend. Fukuyama believes that states will not need to rival each other for power. The spread of liberal democracy and its sidekick liberal economy has â€Å"triumphed† over other regimes. (Fukuyama 1992). It is further believed that open economies create interdependency and sharing of common interests. (Nye 1997-98 p. 76). Also, the state is in relative decline due to the emergence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and (World Bank) and also MNCs (multinational corporations. (Bailys Smith 164). Even in the US Congress the former House of Representatives speaker Newt Gingrich does not regard China’s growth as in any way a threat whilst there are those who have views to the contrary. This highlights how the theoretical debate translates into apolitical one. There are those who view the universalism of western liberalism as unchallengeable and now the norm. This view may be borne out by the fragmentation of the Soviet Union but Matthew Rees views China’s position as similar to that of the Soviet Union in that it threatens western values of liberty and democracy. (Nye 1997-98 p.65-66) . Mearsheimer has also warned of complacency against the Chinese threat, stating of the current good relation between the two states: â€Å"this US policy (of containment) is misguided. A wealthy China would not be a status quo power, but an aggressive state, determined to achieve regional hegemony† (Mearsheimer 2001) Another writer in this field Joseph Nye refutes the claim that the state is in relative decline. His thesis is that the classic realist view of states as the most important actors cannot be disputed due merely to the rise of NGOs. This is because it underestimates the nature of the system of states that is anarchic in structure. Therefore if there is no higher authority to settle disputes the state cannot leave its survival to others. It must ensure its own survival and the only way this can be done is for the state to increase its power capabilities. (Bailys Smith 164). Thus in regard to on-state actors it is â€Å"business as usual† in that non-state actors must still work within a system of states. Thus states will still vie for power within these organisations. (Bailys Smith p. 173). This is the soft power element of the state. Definition of power â€Å"Man’s control over the minds and actions of other men†. (Morgenthau (1948) cited in Bailys Smith p. 173) Power is a highly contested concept because it is difficult to assess what elements actually constitute power. The traditional view of powers the possession of resources that include the size of population and territory, military might and economic strength. (Nye 1990 p. 26). Thus the resources of each state can be measured and compared. But measurement is not enough as evidenced during World War Two when France and Britain had more tanks that Germany but still Germany was able to outmanoeuvre the allies. Therefore when assessing power we also need to assess a state’s ability to convert its resources into such power assume states can do this more effectively than others. (Nye 1990 p.27). These avenues to power will be explored and the evidence that China has these capabilities will be extrapolated. The basis for power does not remain unchanged and must be assessed in its own context. For example the basis for power in 18th Century Europe was its population as it provided soldiers and tax resources. Today it is much more difficult to pinpoint the resources that provide the basis for power. (Nye 1990 p. 27) It is therefore not sufficient to look at the concept of power merely in terms of hard power or tangible resources. As Nye has noted in the post-cold war era there has been a shift in the balance of power in the anarchic system. The bipolar world has shifted to one that is unipolar with the US as the sole superpower. The US has exhibited all the usual traits associated with this position such as military, economic and territorial strength. But advances in technology and the emergence of NGOs and MNCs have meant a closer more interdependent world. Interdependence between states does not mean co-operation as liberals purport. It can be used to further national interest and this type of influence is the intangible soft power element of state apparatus. (Nye 1990 p.30). We can see soft power in action through the Washington consensus where the US is the leader in these institutions. We can also see soft power through the spread of the US’s liberal ideology in terms of economics and politics in what Fukuyama has called the â€Å"Triumph of Liberal Democracy†. (Fukuyama, 1992). This soft power has served to reinforce the US’s hard power resources by gaining it consent and legitimacy as the dominant power. (Nye 1990 p. 33). The universalism of American culture has also helped to further the power of the US by enabling it to establish values and beliefs that are consistent with its own society. Therefore the thesis of this dissertation is that China will be the next superpower by maximizing it’s hard power resources to secure itself in the anarchic system of states. Also, due to interdependence among states and the growth forgoes and MNCs it will seek soft power in its pursuit of power capabilities. The consequences of this systemic shift will mean the promotion of Eastern collective values over Western liberal individualistic tendencies. Part One: Hard Power Resources The Economy: If, as Kennedy suggests, China’s rise will be at the expense of the US, then at present most US concerns are directed at rapidly growing Chinese economy. There are certainly some impressive claims being made about the rise of Chinese economic power. Jeremy Warner writes that â€Å"like it or not, from China’s impact on finite world resources to climate change and the laws of supply and demand, it is transforming the way we live with a speed barely imaginable just a few years ago(The Independent January 27, 2006). Over the last 27 years, China has grown at an average rate of 9.6 present per annum, reaching a GDP of  £2.2 trillion in 2005 (The Independent January 27, 2006). In 1979, China represented 1 per cent of the world economy, with foreign trade totalling $20.6 billion. Today China accounts for 4 per cent of the world economy, with $851 billion in foreign trade, the third largest in the world (Fijian 2005, p19).There is of course still a lot of progress to be made – China’s economy for example is still only one seventh the size of that of the US(Fijian 2005, p19) but it is the rate of growth, along with plans for future expansion, the country’s high savings ratio, and plans to expand supplies of nuclear , clean coal, hydro-electric and renewable forms of energy that lead US experts to believe that one day China will challenge the US as the world’s dominant superpower. Larry Summers, former US Treasury Secretary has compared the integration of China into the w orld economy as one of the three great economic events of the last millennium – on a par with the renaissance and the industrial revolution (The Independent, July 23, 2005). The US has had similar fears about economic competition in the past. In the early 1980s it had concerns about the economic successes being enjoyed by Germany and Japan – fears that were allayed after stagnation in both countries. With China however, US fears appear to be deeper-rooted, primarily at the incredible rate of progress seen in China. Whilst the US economy may still be much larger at present, the rate of growth in China will continue to narrow the gap quickly. And of course, there is an ideological issue at the heart of the US fears about China– how is a Communist country succeeding where others have stumbled? The answer lies partly in America’s own attempts to take advantage of the economic conditions in China when Deng Xiaoping began to open up China to the rest of the world. China had historically been an insular nation, separated from the rest of the world and failing to make the most of its earlier technological advances. Deng understood that whilst China had a huge labour force, to succeed it needed to be organised, competitive in international markets and producing the type of goods that the rest of the world wanted to buy. For this to happen, China would need help from the outside world. The result has been huge foreign investments as companies from across the world have attempted to take advantage of China’s low labour costs. As Stephen King concludes, foreign investors have turned China into the world’s biggest assembly plant: â€Å"China may be a one-party state, but the authorities know all about Adam Smith and the division of labour† (The Independent, February 13, 2006). China is gradually picking off the economies of other G7 nations. Whilst its economy is still considerably smaller than Americas, by the end of 2004 it was bigger economically than France, Italy and Canada(The Independent, February 13, 2006). Germany and Japan are likely tube overtaken soon and then China will have the US firmly in its sights. It will have the opportunity to challenge US regional and global hegemony. Whilst there is an optimistic view that the economic growth in China will lead to long-term mutually beneficial cooperation with the US, more likely outcome is growing tension between the two. As China continues to grow, it will gradually begin to demand more of the world’s scarce resources – oil prices for example are already high and may be pushed higher by Chinese demand. The same will happen with other commodities with the result that China’s success increases the commodity bill for US consumers and increases global competition for raw materials. The US consumer may also put pressure on the government to curb Chinese economic expansion. With petrol being so lightly taxed in the US, motorists are affected directly by oil price rises. As The Economist reports: â€Å"they want somebody to blame and they may have heard that China is scouring the world to lock op oil supplies for its own ‘energy security’† (The Economist, September 3, 2005). Both the US and China have some common economic interests. Both benefit from free trade for example. However, with China now exporting six times as much to the US as it imports from it (The Economist, September3, 2005)., it is now China that has the most to gain, something of an irony after years of America hammering on its door to access Chinese markets. There have also been concerns in the US that China is trying to but its way into strategic assets within the US. In June 2005,CNOOC, a Chinese state controlled company attempted to buy Unocal, medium sized US oil company. Hawks within the US administration argued against allowing oil firms to fall into Chinese hands and, with public opinion in the US against the deal, it eventually fell through. The Chinese view on globalisation has been mixed. There is a view that globalisation gives a stronger reason for economic cooperation between economically strong states and certainly the acceptance of global brands into Chinese culture supports the argument that it has embraced globalisation. On the other hand, globalisation tends to reinforce US and Western interests first and foremost and the 1997-99 Asian financial crisis has convinced many within China that it could expose Chinese economic vulnerability. As Foot concludes: â€Å"with America’s advantage in technological innovation, revolution in military affairs and cultural domination, globalisation seemed to confer gains on Washington and thus further to reinforce the unipolar structure† (Foot2006 p82). Military Power To assess China’s rise to Superpower status we need to look at how it ranks in regard to military strength and capability. (Waltz 1979 p.131). The Neo-Realist view is that the nation-state is the most natural form of society and it should be defended for the national good. (Kennedy p. 90). Armies are essential for controlling land and bringing security to the nation state and which is the main objective in a world of states in a system of anarchy. (Mearsheimer p. 86). Due to competition for resources in a world of anarchy military powers a crucial instrument of the national interest. (Garnett, 1987 p.71). Thus military power is monopolised by states and used to protect states from external force. It is the capacity to kill, coerce or destroy and plays a significant part in international politics that will not be supplanted until the system of states is transformed. (Garnett 1987, p. 69-71). Those who have the most military strength are usually the most influential and the most respected in the system and certainly a proposition shared by Mao Ste-Tung’s saying that â€Å"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun†. (Garnett 1987, p.74). Recent analyses of the Chinese military threat from Washington have expressed growing concern. The 2005 Pentagon report concluded that China could threaten not just its smaller regional neighbours like Taiwan but eventually â€Å"modern militaries operating in the region.† This can be taken to include the US. (Washington Post July 23, 2005). Yee and Storey suggest that there are a number of contributing factors to the belief that China is gradually attempting to extend its influence in the region – 1)its territorial disputes with other countries in the region have intensified, 2) its rapid economic development has accelerated its military modernisation process and 3)China has elevated re-unification with Taiwan as a higher priority following the successful retrocession of Hong Kong in 1997 and Macau in1999(Yee and Storey, p4). These factors can be interpreted as evidence of strategic expansion in the region, with territorial claims on the islets in the South China Sea being seen in particular by China’s neighbours as a sign of a policy of expansion. The hard-line policy on Taiwan and the refusal to abandon the threat of military force against it is also seen as evidence of an aggressive state. As Harry Harding writes: â€Å"the rest of the world has viewed the prospect of a Greater China with both fascination and alarm. Some see it in benign terms, as a dynamic common market that provides growing opportunities for trade and investment. More frequently, however, there has been concern that the combination of economic and military resources available to China will pose a significant threat to the commercial vitality and the strategic stability of the rest of the region† (Yee and Storey p4). There is certainly evidence that China is building up its military capability to the point where it could at least challenge the US in the region. Whilst Kennedy had written in 1989 that China’s army is strong numerically but â€Å"woefully under equipped in modern instruments of war†(Kennedy 1989, p577), more recently China has bolstered its naval, submarine and cruise missile capabilities, is in the process of purchasing advanced aircraft systems and is building a nuclear missile arsenal that is capable of striking virtually all of the United States(Washington Post, July 23, 2005). Whilst much has been made of Chinese reforms since 1979 since in terms of economic growth, it is important to realise that there have been great efforts made to reorganise the military from the early 1980sonwards. Plans were put in place to reduce the People’s Liberation Army from 4.2 million to 3 million (Kennedy 1989, p579) and develop a much more professional force with a higher quality of personnel. In 2000, the total estimated strength of the Chinese military was 2.5million, of which an estimated 1.8 million are ground forces. The overall strategy for the PLA is an overall reduction and reorganisation of both equipment and personnel with a view to creating a more modern and mobile army. In terms of equipment, China falls a long way behind the US military but is looking to modernise. It has a tank inventory of around10,000,many of which are Soviet or Chinese built. Its air force possesses around 4,350 aircraft, the majority of which are combat aircraft. The government is also looking to develop a local aerospace industry that would have the capability to produce technologically advanced aircraft, whilst continuing to import aircraft from Russia. The government also has plans to buy a number of AWAC aircraft from Israel. More recently there have been statements from Chinese military strategists that indicate that China is gearing up to use its military hard power resources. Taiwan will be the most likely arena for the flexing of Chinese military power. General Wen Zinger , political commissar of the Academy of Military Science has stated that the Taiwan problem â€Å"is of far reaching significance to breaking international forces blockade against China’s rise†¦ to rise suddenly, China must pass through oceans and go out of the oceans in its future development(Washington Post July 23, 2005). For proponents of the Chinese threat, such statements support the realist view that China is seeking to increase then demonstrate its power in the international arena. Just as Morgenthau argues that the pursuit of power in world politics is both natural and justified, surrealists will argue that China will become unsatisfied with the existing global power structure and adopt a policy of imperial expansionism aimed at attaining both regional and global hegemony (Yeaned Storey 2002, p7). Whilst China also has the option of economic and cultural means to accomplish its strategic objectives, military force remains the most traditional form of imperialism, and the most likely course for China to take once its economy is fully developed. Joseph Nye observes that the ‘rise’ of China is actually a misnomer and that a more accurate term would be the re-emergence of China. Certainly, China has long been a major power in East Asia, and technologically and economically it was the world’s leader (though without global reach) from 500 to 1500, before being overtaken by Europe and America. Indeed, China’s re-emergence would equate with Kennedy’s argument that power across the globe is cyclical. China already has some issues with the US and the other great powers over foreign policies. As a member of the UN Security Council it has traditionally opposed the views of Western states on the international arena and is continuing to do so in spite of its closer economic ties with the West. Whilst China may accept that at the present time it must operate in a US-dominated unipolar world, it believes that its future should at least lie in a multipolar world encompassing the US, China, Europe, Russia and Japan (Foot, 2006, p81). Certainly during the 1990sthere was Chinese unease at the continued American dominance in global affairs with issues such as further NATO expansion eastward, the renegotiation of terms of the US-Japan alliance, US defence missile systems and intervention in Kosovo being of particular concern. China’s population can be both a hard power resource and a burden. Its current population of 1.3 billion is expected to continue to rise until2030 when it will peak at 1.5 billion before going into decline. Population of such a size is of course a huge resource in terms of manpower, yet a huge burden on the domestic economy and from a domestic security point of view and massive number of people over which to maintain effective control. Western states continue to lobby the Chinese government for greater democratisation, yet the fear of anarchy from a more liberalised system would appear to be keeping the leadership committed to an authoritarian regime. From a realist perspective, it is the combination of economic and military power of China that will ultimately lead to conflict with thus. The build-up of such hard resources will be seen as a threat by thus regardless of any ‘good neighbour’ policies that Chinese diplomats may point to. Realists within the US policy making sphere will argue that China is merely biding its time until its economy is strong enough to provide a basis for future hegemony. Thucydides argument that the belief in the inevitability of conflict can be the cause of war is appropriate here – if both sides believe they will eventually end up in conflict, the military build-up will continue, economic cooperation will fade away, and conflict will become unavoidable. China will eventually have to seek further power in order. Certainly, as the Chinese economy continues to grow, it is likely that its military power will increase. For example, early in 2005, it announced a 12.6 per cent increase in defence spending (Nye, Daily Times March 27, 2005), something that makes it appear more dangerous touts neighbours and further complicating US military commitments in Asia. A RAND study has projected that China’s military expenditure will be more than six times higher than Japans by 2015 and accumulated military capital stock at around five times higher (Daily Times, March27, 2005), again something that suggests it is looking to achieve regional hegemony before aiming its sights higher and looking for global hegemony. Whilst a global military challenge to the US in the short term is unlikely, there is certainly a possibility that China could challenge the US in East Asia, or even more probably over Taiwan. China would almost certainly intervene militarily if Taiwan were ever to declare independence, irrespective of the military or economic cost. No Chinese leader can afford to be seen as the one that lost Taiwan permanently and at present, the West’s main concern about the Chinese military rests ar